PRIMER  OF 
HYGIENE 

Ritchie- Caldwell 


GIFT  OF 


BIOLOGY 

LIBRARY 

G 


NEW-WORLD  HEAL  TH  SER/EZ  •  »•  •  Y- :. \'^ 

BOOK  f       ",/\V-'' 

PRIMER 
OF    HYGIENE 

BEING  A  SIMPLE  TEXTBOOK  ON  PERSONAL 
HEALTH  AND  HOW  TO  KEEP  IT 


BY 
JOHN   W.    RITCHIE 

EDITOR    OF    NEW-WORLD    SCIENCE    SERIES;     JOINT   AUTHOR 
OF    NEW-WORLD    HEALTH    SERIES 

AND 

JOSEPH    S.    CALDWELL 

PLANT   PHYSIOLOGIST,    BUREAU    OF   PLANT    INDUSTRY 
UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


ILLUSTRATED 


1920   REVISION 


YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,   NEW   YORK 

WORLD    BOOK    COMPANY 

1920 


BOOK    COMPANY 

^  T^fE    HOUSE -.OF    APPLIED    KNOWLEDGE 

Established,M905,  by  Caspar  W.  Hodgson          _  ^  L^ 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,  NEW  YORK  Q    \ 

2126   PRAIRIE  AVENUE,  CHICAGO  >  s~\  £S^ 

=___^_    ^    0 

"  Our  national  health  is  physically  our 
greatest  asset.  To  prevent  any  possible  BIOLOGY 

deterioration  of  the  American  stock  should  LIBRARY 

be  a  national  ambition."  These  words  of 
Theodore  Roosevelt  express  the  idea  that 
has  actuated' authors  and  publisher  of  New- 
World  Health  Series.  The  texts  explain 
the  means  by  which  young  Americans  can 
lay  the  foundations  for  sane  and  vigorous 
lives.  They  stand  preeminent  among  Books 
That  Apply  the  World's  Knowledge  to  the 
World's  Needs.  This  particular  volume, 
which  comes  first  in  the  series,  teaches  the 
lower-grade  pupil  what  he  himself  can  do 
to  keep  his  body  in  health,  —  personal  hy- 
giene. The  conservation  of  individual  and 
national  health  is  the  purpose  of  the  series 


. 


RCP   OF   HtRE-38 


Copyright,  1910,  1915, 1920,  by  World  Book  Company 

Copyright  in  Great  Britain 

All  rights  reserved 


PREFACE;' 


FOR  the  most  effective  health  wort  in  our  schools, 
there  must  be  thorough  classroom  instruction  in 
hygiene;  the  teachers  must  exert  every  effort  to 
see  that  the  knowledge  acquired  in  the  classroom  finds 
expression  in  the  lives  of  the  pupils ;  and  the  school 
authorities  must  provide  medical  supervisors  com- 
petent to  prevent  the  spread  of  infections  and  to 
correct  remediable  physical  defects. 

On  the  importance  of  laying  a  sound  educational 
foundation  for  our  health  work,  there  is  little  dis- 
agreement at  the  present  time.  Those  who  know 
human  history  in  its  wider  phases  understand  the  cer- 
tainty with  which  ideas  unloosed  express  themselves 
in  time  in  the  lives  of  men.  The  culmination  hi  recent 
days  of  systematic  campaigns  of  education  and 
propaganda  in  our  own  country  and  elsewhere  in 
the  world  has  demonstrated  anew  that  the  beliefs  of 
men  profoundly  influence  their  actions,  and  that  the 
future  belongs  to  those  who  can  secure  the  accept- 
ance as  truth  of  the  ideas  they  advocate. 

The  authors,  therefore,  venture  to  express  the  hope 
that  in  our  schools  we  shall  not  only  insist  on  the 
present  application  of  hygiene  to  the  pupils'  lives, 
but  shall  also  give  to  every  pupil  that  sound  instruc- 
tion in  hygiene  which,  hi  the  end,  conditions  all  our 
health  work. 

In  this  text  they  have  tried  to  encourage  the  forma- 
tion of  habits  of  right  living,  and  to  assist  medical 
supervisors  by  showing  the  importance  of  their  work. 
But  their  chief  concern  has  been  to  provide  a  body  of 
authoritative  information  in  such  form  that  it  may 
be  used  for  the  instruction  of  the  pupils  in  the  more 
important  facts  and  principles  of  hygiene. 


51561)8 


;7>/0?/:    :    .^REFERENCES 

THE  teacher  who  uses*  this  text  will  find  Rosenau's  Preven- 
tive Medicine  and  Hygiene  (Appleton,  New  York)  and  Jor- 
dan's Principles  of  Bacteriology  (W.  B.  Saunders  Company, 
Philadelphia)  excellent  advanced  books  to  consult  for  infor- 
mation pertaining  to  bacteriology  or  public  health.  The 
subject  of  nutrition  is  treated  in  Lusk's  The  Science  of 
Nutrition  and  Sherman's  Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition, 
both  published  by  W.  B.  Saunders  Company,  and  in  Mc- 
Collum's  The  Newer  Knowledge  of  Nutrition,  published  by  The 
Macmillan  Company,  New  York.  Ritchie's  Primer  of 
Physiology  and  Human  Physiology  contain  much  additional 
matter  concerning  the  nutrition  of  the  body,  and  this  very 
important  subject  is  well  covered  by  Farmers'  Bulletins 
issued  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
They  may  be  obtained  by  application  to  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  B.C.,  and  the  following  numbers 
will  prove  helpful : 

No.  391,  on  the  Economical  Use  of  Meat  in  the  Home; 
No.  34,  on  Meats,  Composition  and  Cooking;  No.  121,  on 
Beans,  Peas,  and  Other  Legumes  as  Food;  No.  256,  on 
Preparation  of  Vegetables  for  the  Table;  No.  565,  on  Corn 
Meal  as  a  Food  and  Ways  of  Using  It ;  No.  717,  on  Food  for 
Young  Children ;  No.  808,  on  How  to  Select  Foods ;  and 
Department  Bulletin  468,  on  Potatoes,  Sweet  Potatoes,  and 
Other  Starchy  Roots  as  Food.  At  the  same  time  obtain  for 
use  with  the  next  two  chapters,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  142, 
on  Principles  of  Nutrition  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food ;  No. 
342,  on  Cooking  Beans  and  Other  Vegetables;  No.  363,  on 
the  Use  of  Milk  as  Food;  No.  375,  on  Care  of  Food  in  the 
Home;  Nos.  389  and  807,  on  Bread  and  Breadmaking;  No. 
712,  on  School  Lunches;  Nos.  817  and  824,  on  How  to  Select 
Foods;  Nos.  839  and  853,  on  Home  Canning;  and  No.  984, 
on  Home  Drying  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables.  All  of  these 
will  be  sent  free  on  application.  For  a  complete  list  of  the 
analyses  and  comparative  costs  of  foods,  see  Bulletin  No.  28 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  which  may 
be  obtained  for  ten  cents  from  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Documents,  Washington,  D.C. 

Other  references  are  given  at  the  ends  of  chapters. 

iv 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  . ,      '                                                      PAGE 

I.  THE   IMPORTANCE  OF  KEEPING  THE  BODY  IN 

HEALTH i 

II.  TKE  HUMAN  BODY  AND  THE  GREAT  LAWS  OF 

HEALTH  .......         5 

III.  FOODS  AND  THEIR  USES  IN  THE  BODY  .        .        9 

IV.  BUYING  FOODS 15 

V.     COOKING  FOODS 19 

VI.     CARING  FOR  FOODS 22 

VII.  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  WORK    .       2.6 

VIII.  KEEPING  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  IN  HEALTH       32 

IX.  THE  CARE  OF  THE  TEETH  .         .         .         .38 

X.  THE  AIR  WE  BREATHE         .         .         .         .46 

XI.  THE  LUNGS  AND  AIR  PASSAGES  AND  THEIR  CARE       52 

XII.  ADENOIDS  AND  ENLARGED  TONSILS        .         .       59 

XIII.  THE  BLOOD  AND  THE  HEART       ...       63 

XIV.  THE  KIDNEYS 69 

XV.     THE  SKIN 71 

XVI.     CLOTHING 77 

XVII.  THE  CARRIAGE  OF  THE  BODY       .         .         .81 

XVIII.     EXERCISE 86 

XIX.  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM          ....       90 

XX.  THE  CARE  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM    .         .       94 

XXI.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  HABIT          .         .         .98 

XXII.  THE  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  BODY      .     103 

XXIII.  THE  EFFECTS  OF  TOBACCO  ON  THE  BODY      .     no 

XXIV.  THE  EYES  AND  THEIR  CARE         .         .         -113 
XXV.  THE  EARS  AND  THEIR  CARE         .         .         .'121 

XXVI.  ACCIDENTS 127 

XXVII.  SOME  SIMPLE  EXERCISES  FOR  USE  IN  SCHOOLS  131 

XXVIII.  DISEASE  GERMS 141 

XXIX.  TYPHOID  FEVER 144 

v 


•••":::    CONTENTS 

.   V;  .4        »      %   \ .  PACK 

XXX.     TuWs&tLpsis  (CONSUMPTION)        .         .         .150 
XXXI.     OTHER  DISEASES  OF  THE  Am  PASSAGES  AND 

LUNGS 157 

XXXII.     MALARIA,  SMALLPOX,  AND  OTHER  GERM  DIS- 
EASES      163 

XXXIII.  PREVENTING  THE  SPREAD  OF  DISEASE  GERMS      168 

XXXIV.  KEEPING  UP  THE  RESISTANCE  OF  THE  BODY 

TO  DISEASE  GERMS         .       v.         .         .176 
To  THE  TEACHER 180 

INDEX  181 


PRIMER  OF 


CHAPTER  ONE 

THE  IMPORTANCE   OF  KEEPING  THE  BODY  IN  HEALTH 


FIG.  i.     When  we  have  health  we  find  the  world  a  beautiful 
place  in  which  to  live. 

ALL  of  us  know  that  this  is  a  beautiful  and  a  pleas- 
ant world.  We  enjoy  the  songs  of  the  birds  and 
the  beauty  of  the  flowers.  It  gives  us  pleasure  to 
feel  the  soft  winds  of  spring  and  to  watch  the  green 
come  back  on  the  trees.  We  love  to  watch  the 
clouds  sail  through  the  sky  and  the  snowflakes  fall 
through  the  air.  Everywhere  we  turn  we  find 
many  things  that  give  us  happiness  and  content- 
ment, and  make  the  world  a  beautiful  place  for  us 
to  live  in. 

Year  after  year  the  world  remains  the  same;  it 
TS  always  beautiful.     Why  do  we  sometimes  enjoy 


'PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 


the  pleasant  'things  of  life  and  at  other  times  find 
ourselves  unhappy  in  the  midst  of  them? 

Work  not  the  cause  of  unhappiness.  Every 
person  who  comes  into  the  world  has  a  work  to  do. 
Many  persons  think  that  it  is  this  work  that  spoils  the 
pleasure  of  life  for  them;  that  if  they  could  be  freed 
from  their  tasks  they  would  be  happy.  This  idea 
is  not  correct.  It  is  natural  for  man  to  work.  Little 
children  labor  for  hours  over  their  block  houses  or 
their  castles  of  sand.  The  blacksmith  enjoys  shap- 
ing the  hot  iron  on  his  anvil.  The  artist  delights 
in  bringing  out  the  picture  with  the  strokes  of  his 
brush.  And  the  pupil  whose  mind  is  alert  finds  en- 
joyment in  the  lessons  he  is  called  on  to  prepare. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  person  who  fails  to  do  his 
work  is  unhappy  and  dissatisfied  with  his  lot.  The 
member  of  a  family  or  of  a  school  who  is  not  try- 
ing to  help  the  group  to  which  he  belongs  is  unhappy 
because  he  knows  he  is  failing  to  do  his  share  of  the 
work.  An  idle  man  always  comes  to  envy  the  man 
who  is  doing  something  and  who  counts  for  some- 
thing among  his  fellow  men.  It  is  not  work,  but 
failure  to  do  our  work,  that  interferes  with  our 
pleasure  in  life. 

Good  health  necessary  for  our  enjoyment  of 
the  world.  When  our  bodies  are  strong  and  well 
we  rejoice  in  them;  we  go  to  our  tasks  gladly  and 
perform  them  with  ease;  and  we  see  and  feel  the 
beauty  of  the  world.  But  when  sickness  and  pain 


KEEPING  THE  BODY  IN  HEALTH  3 

come  upon  us  we  feel  neither  the  joy  of  living  nor 
the  joy  of  work,  and  all  the  things  'that  have  been 
provided  for  our  pleasure  seem  of  little  worth.  Of 
all  our  treasures  none  is  so  precious  as  health;  for 
it  is  health  that  opens  to  us  the  richness  and  full- 
ness of  life. 

Hygiene  important  because  it  teaches  how  to, 
care  for  the  body.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  book 
to  teach  you  how  to  care  for  your  body  and  keep 
it  in  health.  The  study  of  this  subject  is  called 
hygiene.  It  is  a  most  important  subject  to  you  — 
so  important  that  if  you  cannot  afford  to  take 
time  to  study  it  and  understand  it,  there  are  few 
things  that  you  can  afford  to  take  time  to  do. 

Questions :  i.  Mention  some  of  the  things  that  make  the 
world  seem  to  you  a  good  place  to  be.  2.  Do  you  think  you 
would  be  happier  if  you  had  no  duties  to  perform?  3.  Are 
you  happy  when  you  are  sick?  4.  Give  two  reasons  why 
this  is  true.  5.  What  is  hygiene?  6.  Why  is  the  study  of 
hygiene  important? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Call  the  attention 
of  the  class  to  the  fact  that  the  world's  honors  and  rewards  go  to 
those  who  are  able  to  accomplish  its  work,  and  that  ordinarily 
health  is  a  necessary  condition  for  successful  labor.  It  means 
much  to  a  pupil  who  is  carelessly  inclined  to  have  aroused  in  him 
a  desire  for  worthy  achievement,  and  there  is  no  better  ap- 
proach to  this  subject  than  through  hygiene.  The  biographies  of 
eminent  men  will  show  that  a  body  capable  of  withstanding  long- 
continued  and  arduous  toil  is  usually  one  of  the  chief  components 
of  greatness,  and  there  are  many  passages  from  the  lives  of  the 
great  men  of  literature  that  will  help  the  teacher  in  showing  the 
relations  of  health  to  life  and  work. 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


skull 


humerus 


FIG.  2.     The  skeleton. 


CHAPTER  TWO 

THE  HUMAN  BODY  AND  THE  GREAT  LAWS  OF  HEALTH 

A  GREAT  engine  is  made  of  many  different  parts  all 
put  together  to  make  one  machine.  So  is  the  human 
body  made  of  many  different  parts  all  joined  to- 
gether to  make  one  whole.  The  engineer  must 
know  when  his  engine  needs  coal  and  water  and 
how  to  supply  them.  So  we  must  understand  the 
needs  of  our  bodies  and  how  to  satisfy  these 
needs.  The  engineer  must  know  how  to  keep 
sand  and  dirt  out  of  the  working  parts  of  the 
engine  and  how  to  oil  these  parts  so  that  they 
will  not  wear  each  other  away.  So  we  must  know 
how  to  keep  out  of  our  bodies  the  germs  that  cause 
disease  and  how  to  give  our  bodies  the  exercise  and 
rest  that  are  necessary  for  their  health.  In  this 
chapter  we  shall  study  the  parts  of  the  body,  the 
needs  of  the  body,  and  the  great  laws  we  must 
observe  to  keep  our  bodies  in  health. 

The  parts  of  the  human  body.  The  human 
body  is  composed  of  a  head,  a  trunk,  and  two  pairs 
of  limbs.  It  is  supported  by  a  strong  framework  of 
bones  on  which  the  whole  body  is  built.  The  muscles 
to  move  this  framework  of  bones  are  stretched  over 
it  in  strong  bands,  and  the  skin  forms  a  tough 
covering  over  the  whole  body. 

The  organs  of  the  body.  The  bones  and 
muscles  form  a  thick  wall  about  a  large  cavity  in 
the  trunk  of  the  body.  In  this  cavity  are  found 

5 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


many  of  the  organs  that  do  the  work  of  the  body. 
In  the  upper  part  of  the  cavity  we  find  the  heart 
and  lungs.  In  its  lower  part  are  the  stomach,  the 


intestine 


FIG.  3.  The  principal  organs  of  the  body.  The  left  lung  has  been 
removed  and  the  edge  of  the  right  lung  turned  back  to  show  the 
heart  and  blood  vessels  more  clearly. 

intestines,  the  liver,  the  kidneys,  and  some  other 
organs.  In  Figure  3  the  organs  are  shown  as  they 
lie  in  place  in  the  cavity  of  the  trunk. 

The  uses  of  the  organs.  Each  part  of  the  body 
has  a  work  to  do.  The  bones  give  shape  and  strength 
to  every  part.  Without  them  we  should  be  as  limp 
and  shapeless  as  bags  of  sand.  The  muscles  move 
all  the  body  parts,  and  without  the  muscles  we 
should  be  as  motionless  as  trees  or  stones.  The 
stomach  and  intestines  receive  food  and  prepare  it 
for  use;  the  heart  keeps  the  blood  moving  through 
the  body;  and  the  lungs  take  in  oxygen  from 
the  air.  The  hand  has  a  work  that  the  foot  can- 


THE  HUMAN  BODY  7 

not  do,  and  the  eye  has  a  work  that  the  tongue 
cannot  do.  In  the  same  way  each  part  of  the  body 
has  a  work  of  its  own  that  can  be  done  by  no  other 
part. 

The  great  laws  of  health.  For  an  engineer  to 
understand  the  importance  of  taking  care  of  his  en- 
gine is  not  enough;  he  must  also  know  how  to  do  it. 
So,  if  we  hope  to  have  strong,  healthy  bodies,  we 
must  not  only  understand  the  importance  of  keep- 
ing the  laws  of  health,  but  we  must  know  what 
these  laws  are  and  how  we  can  keep  them.  The 
following  are  the  great  laws  of  health  that  we  should 
understand  and  observe: 

1.  The  body  must  have  a  proper  supply  of  food. 

2.  It  must  have  an  abundance  of  fresh  air. 

3.  It  must  get  rid  of  its  poisonous  wastes. 

4.  It  must  be  sheltered  from  the  weather  so  that 

it  will  not  be  too  hot  or  too  cold. 

5.  It  must  have  exercise,  rest,  and  sleep. 

6.  It  must  be  kept  free  from  pain. 

7.  The  mind  must  be  cheerful,  and  not  disturbed 

by  constant  fretting,  anxiety,  or  care. 

8.  Disease  germs  must  not  be  allowed  to  get  into 

the  body  and  poison  it. 

Every  one  of  these  laws  must  be  followed  if  we 
are  to  keep  our  health  and  our  strength;  for  as  a 
KJy  in  the  garden  flourishes  when  it  has  a  fertile 
soil  and  other  favorable  conditions,  so  will  your 
body  have  strength  and  vigor  if  its  needs  are  satis- 


8  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

fied  and  it  is  allowed  to  live  in  accordance  with  the 
laws  of  health.  And  as  surely  as  the  lily  wilts  when 
its  food  or  its  supply  of  water  fails,  so  surely  must 
your  body  be  injured  if  you  break  the  great  laws 
of  its  life.  In  later  chapters  of  this  book  we  shall 
discuss  each  of  these  laws  and  point  out  how  each 
may  best  be  followed. 

Questions  :  i.  Name  the  principal  divisions  of  the  body. 
2.  What  forms  the  framework  of  the  body?  3.  What  is 
stretched  over  the  framework  of  the  body  to  move  it? 
4.  With  what  is  the  body  covered?  5.  What  organs  are  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  body?  6.  In  the  lower 
part?  7.  What  is  the  work  of  the  bones?  8.  Of  the  muscles? 
9.  Of  the  stomach  and  intestines?  10.  Of  the  heart?  n.  Of 
the  lungs?  12.  Name  some  other  organs  of  the  body  and  tell 
what  they  do.  13.  Give  some  of  the  great  laws  of  health. 
14.  What  will  happen  to  us  if  we  keep  these  laws?  15.  If  we 
break  them? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  When  any  one  is 
absent  from  the  school  or  grade  on  account  of  illness,  let  the 
teacher  and  pupils  discuss  the  cause  of  the  illness  and  whether  it 
could  have  been  prevented  by  reasonable  care.  Keep  a  record  of 
all  cases  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  find  how  many  days  have  been 
lost  on  account  of  illness  and  how  much  of  this  illness  might  have 
been  prevented.  Keep  developing  the  idea  that  health  follows 
right  living,  and  that  each  pupil  is  hygienically  the  architect  of 
his  own  fate. 


CHAPTER  THREE 

FOODS  AND  THEIR  USES  IN  THE  BODY 


FIGS.  4,  5,  and  6.    Foods  furnish  the  body  with  building  material, 
heat,  and  strength. 

WHEN  a  person  goes  without  food  for  more  than  a 
few  hours,  he  feels  hungry.  This  means  that  his 
body  needs  food  and  is  calling  for  it.  If  the  person 
cannot  get  food,  he  will  soon  become  weak  and  his 
body  will  waste  away.  Without  food  we  cannot 
keep  our  health  and  strength.  Without  food  we 
cannot  even  live. 

Do  you  ever  wonder  why  it  is  that  you  want  to 
eat?  Why  one  food  is  sometimes  better  for  us  than 
another  food?  Why  a  proper  amount  of  food  will 
give  strength  to  the  body,  but  too  much  food  will 
make  the  body  ill?  Why  physicians  are  continually 
telling  us  to  be  careful  about  what  we  eat  and  in- 
sisting that  a  great  part  of  our  sickness  comes  from 
improper  food?  These  questions  are  most  impor- 
tant to  us,  and  we  shall  therefore  study  foods  and 
the  uses  that  the  body  makes  of  them. 

Foods  necessary  for  building  materials.  Scrape 
the  skin  of  your  arm  with  a  knife.  Do  you  not  find 

Q 


10  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

dead,  dry  scales  on  the  knife?  This  dead  material 
is  all  the  time  falling  away  from  the  skin,  as  parti- 
cles of  bark  drop  from  the  outside  of  a  tree.  The 
inner  parts  of  your  body  also  are  wasting  away.  Yet 
your  body  does  not  become  lighter  and  thinner.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  young  persons  the  body  grows 
larger  and  becomes  heavier  year  by  year.  This  is 
because  every  particle  of  substance  that  wastes 
away  in  heart  or  muscle  or  brain  or  skin  is  re- 
placed by  new  materials,  and  at  the  same  time  new 
substance  is  built  up  for  making  the  body  larger. 
This  new  material  is  formed  from  the  food  that  we 
eat.  One  great  use  of  food  is  to  furnish  building  mate- 
rial to  the  body. 

The  building  foods.  Among  the  more  impo^- 
tant  building  foods  are  lean  meats,  milk,  and  eggs. 
Bread  and  grains  also  contain  large  amounts  of  build- 
ing materials,  as  do  peas,  beans,  cheese,  and  Liuts. 
These  foods  give  the  body  warmth  and  strength, 
but  their  main  use  is  to  furnish  material  for  growth 
and  repair.  They  can  do  this  because  they  are 
composed  of  materials  like  those  which  make  up 
our  bodies.  Only  such  materials  can  build  up  our 
bodies.  It  would  be  just  as  sensible  to  try  to 
mend  a  broken  window  with  bricks  or  to  repair 
a  wornout  engine  with  lumps  of  coal  as  to  try 
to  repair  the  body  with  materials  different  from 
those  of  which  it  is  made.  Every  day  we  must 
eat  some  building  food,  for  night  and  day,  whether 


FOODS  AND   THEIR   USES  IN  THE  BODY     II 

we  are  asleep  or  awake,  our  bodies  are  wearing 
away. 

Foods  necessary  to  give  heat  to  the   body. 

The  body  is  warmer  than  most  of  the  objects  around 
it.  It  is  kept  warm  by  the  food  that  we  eat  just  as 
a  stove  is  kept  warm  by  the  wood  or  coal  that  is 
burned  in  it.  A  second  use  of  food  is  to  furnish  heat 
for  warming  the  body. 

Foods  necessary  to  give  strength  to  the  body. 
You  have  seen  a  great  engine  driving  hundreds  of 
machines,  or  you  have  watched  a  locomotive  as  it 
sped  along  the  rails  pulling  a  tram  behind  it.  An 
engine  gets  its  power  to  work  from  the  coal  that 
is  burned  hi  it.  In  the  same  way,  when  you  lift 
something  or  when  you  run,  your  body  gets  its 
strength  and  its  power  from  the  food  that  it  uses. 
A  third  use  of  food  is  to  give  the  body  strength  and 
power  to  work. 

The  heating  and  strengthening  foods.  The 
second  class  of  foods  is  the  heating  and  strengthen- 
ing foods.  These  are  the  foods  that  contain  the 
starches  and  sugars,  the  fats  and  the  oils.  We  take 
sugar  into  the  body  mainly  in  fruits  and  in  the  foods 
to  which  we  add  it  to  improve  the  taste.  Molasses, 
honey,  syrups,  and  other  sweet  foods  also  contain 
large  amounts  of  sugar. 

Starch  forms  more  than  three  fifths  of  our  food. 
We  eat  it  mainly  in  potatoes  and  in  the  foods  made 
from  grains  —  wheat  bread,  corn  bread,  macaroni, 


12 


PRTMER   OF  HYGIENE 


rice,  and  breakfast  foods.     A  little  starch  is  found 
also  in  such  vegetables  as  turnips  and  cabbages. 

The  fats  we  get  chiefly  in  meats,  and  in  butter, 
cheese,  and  milk.  Both  fats  and  building  material 
are  supplied  in  peanuts,  peanut  butter,  and  soy 


FIG.  7.  We  should  eat  plain,  substantial  foods  that  will  supply 
the  body's  needs  and  keep  it  in  health.  We  should  learn  in  youth 
to  eat  these  foods,  for  to  a  great  extent  we  carry  through  life  the 
habits  of  eating  that  we  form  when  we  are  young. 

beans,  and  in  nuts  such  as  pecans,  hickory  nuts, 
and  walnuts.  We  also  get  fat  in  food  cooked  with 
lard,  cottonseed  oil  or  corn  oil,  and  a  little  fat  in 
fruits  and  vegetables.  The  people  of  the  tropics 
get  much  of  the  fat  they  use  from  the  coconut. 
In  our  country  coconut  oil  is  now  much  used  in 
cooking,  and  it  is  made  into  substitutes  for  butter. 
From  a  pound  of  fat  or  oil  the  body  gets  twice  as 
much  heat  and  strength  as  it  gets  from  a  pound  of 
any  other  kind  of  food. 

Other  material  supplied  by  foods.     Besides 


FOODS  AND   THEIR    USES  IN  THE  BODY       13 

supplying  building  material  and  giving  heat  and 
strength  to  the  body,  the  foods  must  provide  it  with 
minerals.  They  must  also  supply  small  amounts  of 
certain  substances  called  vitamins,  that  are  necessary 
for  health  and  life.  Minerals  are  furnished  by  milk 
and  vegetables  especially.  Meats  and  white  flour  are 
low  in  them,  and  sugar,  starch,  and  corn  sirup  lack 
them  entirely. 

There  are  at  least  three  vitamins,  and  if  these 
substances  are  lacking  the  body  cannot  grow  or 
even  live.  One  vitamin  is  found  in  moderate 
amounts  in  fresh  meats,  milk,  eggs,  vegetables,  and 
the  outer  layers  of  grains.  Another  is  found  in  leafy 
vegetables  like  spinach,  lettuce,  and  cabbage,  in  the 
yolk  of  eggs,  and  especially  in  butter  and  milk.  The 
third  vitamin  is  most  abundant  in  fresh  vegetables 
and  fruits.  If  this  last  vitamin  is  lacking  in  the  diet, 
the  disease  called  scurvy  develops.  After  babies  are 
a  few  months  old,  they  are  given  orange  juice  to 
provide  them  with  a  supply  of  this  vitamin  (page 
180). 

Selecting  foods  that  will  supply  all  the  body 
needs.  To  supply  all  the  body  needs  we  must  eat 
foods  of  different  kinds  and  not  live  largely  on  any 
one  kind  of  food.  Eating  too  much  meat  or  too 
much  sugar,  and  failure  to  use  enough  milk  and 
vegetables,  are  common  mistakes  in  selecting  foods. 

Learning  to  eat  many  different  kinds  of  foods. 
To  a  large  extent  we  keep  through  life  the  habits  of 


14  PRIMER    OF  HYGIENE 

eating  formed  when  young ;  nearly  all  older  persons 
like  the  things  that  they  ate  as  children.  You 
should,  therefore,  eat  many  different  kinds  of  foods 
and  learn  to  like  them.  You  should  guard  against 
the  habit  of  eating  only  a  few  things  and  refusing  to 
taste  anything  else.  This  is  an  important  point; 
for  it  is  only  by  eating  a  variety  of  foods  that  one 
can  be  sure  of  giving  the  body  all  the  materials 
necessary  for  health. 

Questions:  i.  Name  the  first  use  of  foods  to  the  body. 
2.  Why  must  the  body  have  building  materials  ?  3.  Name 
the  more  important  building  foods.  4.  Give  two  other  uses 
of  foods  in  the  body.  5.  What  materials  do  these  foods 
contain?  6.  Name  some  foods  that  contain  starch. 
•  7.  Name  some  foods  that  contain,  sugar.  8.  Name  the 
foods  from  which  we  obtain  fat.  9.  For  what  is  fat  es- 
pecially valuable  in  the  body  ?  10.  Why  are  milk,  eggs,  and 
leafy  vegetables  very  necessary  foods  for  children  ? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Which  needs 
more  food :  an  animal  that  stays  outdoors  in  winter,  or  one  that  is 
kept  in  a  warm  stable  ?  Why  ?  The  kind  of  food  eaten  by  the  in- 
habitants of  cold  countries,  and  why.  The  kind  of  foods  needed  in 
especially  large  amounts  by  growing  animals  and  children.  Where 
a  chick  in  an  egg  gets  the  lime  for  building  its  skeleton.  The 
minerals  needed  by  the  body  and  where  they  are  obtained.  How 
food  is  stored  in  the  body.  Why  a  person  is  thin  after  sickness. 
What  a  frog  or  a  bear  lives  on  while  sleeping  through  the  winter. 
Why  a  person  who  is  doing  hard  work  needs  large  amounts  of  food. 

The  teacher  should  learn  as  much  as  possible  about  the  eating 
habits  of  the  pupils,  and  if  any  of  them  are  given  to  eating  large 
quantities  of  sweets  or  lean  meats,  or  of  falling  into  other  errors  of 
diet,  they  should  have  clearly  presented  to  them  the  fact  that  the 
body  demands  a  balanced  ration  and  that  it  will  not  receive  such  a 
ration  from  a  diet  of  this  sort. 


CHAPTER  FOUR 

BUYING  FOODS 


FIG.  8.  Milk  is  especially  valuable  for  its  lime  and  the  vitamin 
in  its  cream.  Vegetables  and  fruits  are  rich  in  minerals  and 
vitamins.  Grains  are  used  the  world  over  to  supply  the  body 
with  heat  and  strength. 

DURING  a  strike  in  Chicago  a  poor  woman  spent 
her  last  ten  cents  for  lettuce  to  feed  her  hungry 
family.  She  did  not  know  that  lettuce  is  nineteen 
twentieths  water,  and  that  a  pound  of  corn  meal  will 
furnish  the  body  with  as  much  heat  and  strength  as 
will  twenty- two  pounds  of  lettuce.  One  who  buys 
food  for  a  family  where  the  income  is  not  large 
must  watch  the  markets  and  learn  to  pick  articles 
that  are  not  high  priced.  At  the  same  time  the 
buyer  must  secure  such  a  variety  of  foods  that  they 
will  give  the  body  enough  of  all  of  the  substances  that 
it  needs.  To  do  this  requires  a  knowledge  of  the 
needs  of  the  body  and  of  the  materials  that  are  in 
the  different  foodstuffs. 

15 


1 6  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

How  to  select  foods.  Hard-working  people  and 
growing  children  need  a  great  deal  of  the  heating 
and  strengthening  foods,  and  these  may  form  three 
fourths  of  all  that  they  eat.  Of  such  foods,  the 
grains  and  products  made  from  them,  like  flour, 
corn  meal,  rice,  and  oatmeal,  are  the  cheapest. 
Next  in  low  price  and  in  heat-  and  strength-giving 
value  are  white  and  sweet  potatoes,  which  are  cheap 
whenever  they  are  plentiful.  Sugar,  molasses,  and 
corn  sirup  furnish  us  with  heat  and  strength  at  a 
little  higher  price  than  do  the  grains.  Dried  fruits 
contain  sugar  in  a  more  expensive  form  than  sugar 
and  sirups.  Fat  meat,  salt  pork,  bacon,  butter,  and 
cottonseed  oil  are  all  heat  and  strength  giving,  but 
cost  more  according  to  their  food  value  than  the 
grains  and  potatoes.  Therefore,  when  we  are  buying 
our  heating  and  strengthening  foods,  we  shall  do 
well  to  choose  mostly  grains  and  potatoes,  with  just 
enough  fat-  or  sugar-containing  foods  to  give  them 
flavor. 

As  the  building  foods  cost  more  than  the  heating 
and  strengthening  foods,  it  is  well  to  remember 
that  we  do  not  need  nearly  so  much  of  them.  We 
can  also  buy  the  cheapest  of  these  foods,  knowing 
that  they  furnish  as  much  food  value  as  the  others. 
For  example,  a  pound  of  round  steak  is  more  nourish- 
ing than  a  pound  of  porterhouse  steak,  and  it  is 
cheaper.  Dried  beans,  which  cost  much  less  than 
meat,  are  rich  in  building  material  and  may  be 


BUYING  FOODS 


substituted  in  part  for  meat,  without  injury  to  the 
health.     Other    meat    substitutes    which    allow    a 


20 


60 


60         100        120        MO        160        180       200        220 


10 


13         120 


1!0         173 


190 


20 


med 


1620 


Butt 


3*91 


£  icon 


2  WO 


Pean 


fe/f 


fatal 


Rice 


Beef,  rodst 


/S€S 


Mutfan 


/.'23 


Bread 


Prunes 


1160 


Potatoes, 


-W7 


'43 


FIG.  9.  The  lines  show  the  relative  value  in  calories  per  pound 
for  each  of  the  foodstuffs  named.  The  figures  following  the 
names  give  the  actual  calories;  those  at  the  top  indicate  the 
percentage  values,  corn  meal  standing  for  100  per  cent.  A  calorie 
represents  the  heat  that  it  takes  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a 
kilogram  of  water  (about  a  quart)  one  degree  Centigrade  (about 
two  degrees  Fahrenheit). 

saving  in  money  are  peas,  soy  beans,  cream  cheese, 
and  peanut  butter.  If  we  have  to  choose  between 
meat  and  milk,  we  should  choose  milk,  as  it  is  more 


1 8  PRIMER    OF  HYGIENE 

nearly  a  perfect  food  than  meat.  Even  at  eighteen 
cents  a  quart,  milk  is  no  more  expensive  than  meat 
at  thirty-five  cents  a  pound.  When  eggs  are  ex- 
pensive, we  can  use  the  same  substitutes  for  them 
that  we  do  for  meat.  When  they  are  cheap,  they  are 
an  economical  building  food,  since  they  give  nourish- 
ment almost  without  waste. 

Besides  the  heating  and  strengthening  and  build- 
ing foods,  we  must  have  foods  which  contain  mineral 
salts  and  the  different  vitamins  that  are  found  neces- 
sary to  growth  and  health.  If  we  are  using  substi- 
tutes for  meat,  or  if  leafy  vegetables  are  expensive, 
we  should  buy  more  milk  in  order  to  get  enough  of 
these  health-preserving  substances. 

Questions :  i .  Into  what  great  classes  may  foods  be  divided 
(pages  10  and  n)  ?  2.  Why  is  the  proper  selection  of  foods 
important?  3.  What  must  one  know  in  order  to  make  a 
proper  selection  of  foods?  4.  What  are  the  cheapest  heat- 
giving  and  strength-giving  foods?  5.  How  much  of  the 
total  food  of  a  working  man  may  be  made  up  of  heating  and 
strengthening  materials?  6.  What  is  lacking  in  a  meal 
made  up  of  bread,  potatoes,  and  sirup?  7.  From  the  list 
on  page  17  select  a  number  of  foods  which  will  supply  heat 
and  strength  at  a  low  price.  8.  Select  some  which  supply 
building  material  at  a  moderate  cost.  9.  Why  must  the 
food  for  every  person  include  either  milk  or  meat  and  leafy 
vegetables  ? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Discuss  the  nu- 
tritive value  of  commonly  used  foods  in  relation  to  their  current 
local  prices.  The  unique  place  of  milk  in  the  dietary  as  a  balanced 
food  and  as  a  source  of  minerals  and  vitamins  should  be  made  clear. 


CHAPTER  FIVE 

COOKING  FOODS 

IT  would  be  hard  to  think  of  an  article  of  food  more 

pleasant  to  the  taste  and  more  certain  to  agree  with 

the  digestion   than  warm, 

crisp,  brown    toast,   made 

from    light,    well-baked 

bread.    It  would  be  hard 

to  think  of  an  article  of  food 

more    disagreeable    to  the 

taste  and  more  ruinous  to 

the  health  than  rolls  baked 

only  until  the  outer  part  is 

slightly  browned  while  the 

inner  part  of  each  roll  is 

still  a  sticky,  doughy  mass. 

Yet  the  toast  and  the  rolls 

are   made  from   the   same 

materials.     The  difference  is  in  the  way  they  are 

cooked. 

The  importance  of  well-cooked  food.  It  has 
been  said  that  the  greatest  difference  between  the 
food  of  the  rich  ana  the  food  of  the  poor  is  in  the 
cooking.  There  is  much  truth  in  this,  for  to  a  very 
considerable  extent  we  all  live  on  the  same  foods. 
It  would  take  a  whole  book  to  discuss  fully  the 
subject  of  cooking,  and  we  cannot  attempt  to  do  this 
here.  There  are,  however,  two  points  in  regard  to 
cooking  that  are  so  important  that  every  one  should 
understand  them. 

19 


FIG.  10.  This  man's  work  is 
considered  so  important  that 
he  is  better  paid  than  most 
lawyers,  doctors,  ministers, 
or  teachers. 


20  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

The  cooking  of  starchy  foods.  Raw  starch 
is  in  little  hard  grains  that  are  digested  very  slowly. 
When  placed  in  hot  water,  these  grains  swell  up  into 
a  soft  mass.  This  softened  starch  can  then  be 
easily  digested.  Oatmeal  or  corn  meal  that  has  been 
cooked  for  only  a  short  time  is  very  difficult  to  di- 
gest, but  if  these  foods  are  placed  in  a  double  boiler 
and  cooked  for  several  hours  they  are  very  easy  to 
digest.  Thoroughly  baked  bread  is  the  "staff  of 
life,"  and  every  healthy  person  can  digest  it.  But 
half-baked  bread,  with  the  starch  grains  in  it  al- 
most as  hard  as  little  bits  of  wood,  is  ruinous  to  the 
digestion  of  any  one  who  is  forced  to  eat  it 

The  use  of  fats  in  cooking.  Fat  is  a  most  val- 
uable heating  and  strengthening  food,  but,  like  every 
other  food,  it  may  injure  the  body  if  it  is  taken  in  a 
wrong  way  or  in  too  large  amounts.  When  fat  has 
been  made  very  hot,  as  often  happens  when  food  is 
fried,  acids  that  injure  the  stomach  are  formed  in  it. 
Also,  when  foods  are  coated  with  fat,  the  digestive 
juices  cannot  get  at  them  and  they  are  digested  very 
slowly.  For  this  reason  many  foods  are  much 
harder  to  digest  when  fried  than  when  cooked  in 
other  ways.  Greasy  crullers,  pancakes,  fried  pies, 
and  other  fried  foods  are  injuring  the  digestive  or- 
gans of  many  people,  and  the  health  of  many  fami- 
lies would  improve  at  once  if  their  frying  pans 
were  thrown  away. 

The  importance   of   pleasing  the  taste.     The 


COOKING  FOODS  21 

human  body  is  not  a  mere  furnace  or  engine,  and 
giving  it  certain  quantities  of  food  materials  does 
not  necessarily  mean  that  it  will  be  properly  nour- 
ished. The  importance  of  pleasing  the  taste,  of 
serving  food  attractively,  and  of  pleasant  and 
cheerful  conditions  while  eating  must  always  be 
kept  in  mind. 

Another  important  reason  for  preparing  food  in  an 
attractive  manner  is  to  tempt  the  appetite  so  that  a 
sufficient  amount  will  be  eaten.  Many  measure- 
ments and  weighings  indicate  that  a  boy  or  girl  of  a 
given  age  and  height  ought  to  have  about  a  certain 
weight,  and  that  large  numbers  of  boys  and  girls 
do  not  get  enough  food  because  they  refuse  to  eat 
many  things  that  are  placed  on  the  table.  Some- 
times the  trouble  comes  from  eating  little  or  nothing 
at  breakfast  time,  or  from  eating  something  before 
mealtime  so  that  little  dinner  or  supper  is  taken. 
If  you  are  thinner  than  you  ought  to  be,  be  sure 
that  you  eat  a  full  meal  three  times  a  day. 

Questions :  i .  Why  should  starchy  foods  be  well  cooked  ? 
2.  Name  some  starchy  foods.  3.  What  injurious  sub- 
stances are  formed  in  fat  when  it  is  heated  very  hot  ?  4.  Why 
are  fried  foods  harder  to  digest  than  foods  that  are  cooked 
in  other  ways  ? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Write  to  Child 
Health  Organization,  156  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City,  for  lit- 
erature concerning  the  nutrition  of  growing  children. 


CHAPTER   SIX 

CARING  FOR  FOODS 


FIG.  ii.  Foods  should  be  kept  away  from  the  hands  of  the  public 
and  from  dust  and  flies. 

IF  a  piece  of  meat  is  left  in  a  warm  room,  it  will 
soon  spoil.  But  if  it  is  thoroughly  cooked  and 
tightly  sealed  up  in  a  can,  it  will  keep  for  years.  Or 
if  it  is  placed  where  it  will  remain  frozen,  it  will  not 
decay.  Every  fisherman  or  farmer  knows  that  salt 
helps  to  keep  fish  or  meat  from  spoiling,  and  the 
housekeeper  puts  sugar  in  her  fruits  to  keep  them 
from  souring,  or  to  "preserve"  them. 

What  is  it  that  causes  food  to  spoil?  Why  is  it 
that  food  will  keep  if  it  is  canned,  or  frozen,  or 
heavily  salted,  or  preserved  in  sugar?  What  must 
we  do  with  our  foods  when  we  want  to  keep  them 
from  spoiling  and  becoming  unfit  for  use? 

Spoiling  of  food  caused  by  bacteria.  Spoil- 
ing and  souring  of  food  are  caused  by  bacteria. 
These  are  plants  so  very  small  that  we  can  see  them 
only  with  a  microscope.  Some  kinds  of  bacteria 


CARING  FOR  FOODS 


are  able  to  grow  in  our  bodies  and  cause  sickness. 
These  kinds  we  call  disease  germs.  Many  kinds  of 
bacteria  that  do  not  cause  disease  can  grow  in  our 
foods  and  cause  the  foods  to  spoil  so  that  they  be- 
come unfit  for  use.  The  important  thing  in  the  care 
of  foods  is  to  keep  bacteria  from  growing  in  them. 

Keeping  bacteria  out  of  food  by  cleanliness. 
We  give  bacteria  a  chance  to  get  into  food  by  allow- 
ing dust  to  blow  into  it;  by  allowing  flies  to  crawl 
over  it;  by  allowing  mice,  rats,  and  roaches  to  run 
about  hi  pantries;  by  keeping  the  food  in  dirty  ves- 
sels; by  washing  it  with  dirty  water;  by  handling 
it  with  unclean  hands;  and 
in  general  by  failing  to 
keep  it  clean.  Cleanliness  is 
the  first  great  point  in  caring 
for  food,  since  it  keeps  bacteria 
from  getting  into  the  food. 

Keeping  bacteria  from 
growing  in  foods  by  cold. 
Bacteria  grow  very  slowly 
in  foods  that  are  kept  cold, 
and  by  keeping  foods  cold 
we  can  do  much  to  keep  them  fIG;  ,12'  F°od  shfould  b* 

r  kept  m  a  refrigerator,  and 

from  spoiling.    Do  not  leave  there 

in    a  warm    kitchen    milk, 

meats,     cooked     fruits,     or 

other  foods  that  will  spoil,  but  put  them  at  once  into 

a  refrigerator  with  plenty  of  ice.    If  ice  cannot  be 


should  always  be 
enough  ice  in  the  refrigera= 
tor  to  keep  the  food  cold. 


24  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

obtained,  food  should  be  bought  or  cooked  only  as  it 
can  be  used,  for  spoiled  food  is  unfit  for  use.  Cold 
is  the  second  great  point  in  the  care  of  food,  since  it 
keeps  bacteria  from  growing  in  the  food. 

Killing  the  bacteria  in  food  with  heat.  Cook- 
ing food  kills  the  bacteria  in  it  and  for  a  time 
keeps  the  food  from  spoiling.  Milk  vessels  and  other 
vessels  in  which  food  is  kept  should  be  scalded  with 
hot  water  before  they  are  used.  If  this  is  not  done, 
great  numbers  of  bacteria  will  get  into  the  food 
from  the  vessels  and  will  quickly  cause  it  to  spoil. 

Keeping  disease  germs  out  of  foods.  Persons 
who  are  sick  and  persons  who  are  caring  for  the  sick 
often  have  dangerous  disease  germs  on  their  hands. 
It  is  never  safe  for  these  persons  to  handle  food,  for 
if  the  germs  get  from  their  hands  into  the  food  other 
people  are  likely  to  catch  the  disease.  No  one  who 
has  consumption  or  who  has  lately  had  typhoid  fever 
should  have  anything  to  do  with  the  handling  of  food. 

All  foods  should  be  carefully  guarded  from  flies, 
for  the  fly  is  a  great  carrier  of  dangerous  germs. 
It  need  hardly  be  said  that  foods  that  have  been 
handled  in  an  unclean  way,  or  foods  that  have  been 
fingered  over  and  handled  by  the  public,  are  far  more 
likely  to  have  disease  germs  in  them  than  foods  that 
have  been  kept  clean. 

The  danger  in  using  food  preservatives. 
There  are  many  acids  and  other  substances  that  will 
prevent  the  growth  of  bacteria  in  milk  and  other 


CARING  FOR  FOODS  2$ 

foods,  and  will  keep  the  foods  from  spoiling.  Some 
of  these  are  sold  in  drug  stores  or  by  agents  and 
are  used  by  housekeepers,  especially  in  canning 
fruits.  Though  some  of  these  substances  are  harm- 
less, it  has  been  proved  that  others  are  poisonous, 
and  their  use  in  foods  is  unnecessary  and  unwise. 

Questions  :  i.  What  causes  foods  to  spoil?  2.  What  are 
bacteria?  3.  How  can  food  be  kept  from  spoiling?  4. 
Mention  some  ways  by  which  bacteria  get  into  food.  5. 
What  is  the  first  great  point  in  caring  for  food?  6.  Why  do 
foods  keep  longer  when  they  are  kept  cold?  7.  Where 
should  foods  be  kept?  8.  What  is  the  second  great  point 
in  the  care  of  foods?  9.  How  can  the  bacteria  in  foods  be 
killed?  10.  How  can  the  germs  on  milk  vessels  and  food 
vessels  be  killed?  n.  Why  should  this  be  done?  12.  How 
do  disease  germs  often  get  into  food?  13.  Is  it  wise  or  un- 
wise to  use  food  preservatives? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  The  importance  of 
proper  care  of  food  and  food  receptacles.  Fill  small,  clean  bottles 
or  jars  with  milk  or  cooked  fruits.  Keep  one  in  a  warm  room,  the 
other  in  the  coldest  place  possible.  Let  the  children  notice  which 
sours  first.  When  both  have  become  sour,  empty  the  bottles,  scald 
one  carefully,  rinse  the  other  with  cold  water,  and  refill.  Put  them 
away  together  and  let  the  children  watch  for  signs  of  souring. 

Good  and  bad  methods  of  caring  for  milk.  The  importance  of 
keeping  free  from  germs  the  milk  given  to  a  baby.  The  care  of 
school  lunches.  Foods  purchased  by  school  children  that  are  likely 
to  contain  large  numbers  of  bacteria.  Practical  methods  of  keep- 
ing flies  out  of  a  kitchen.  How  to  destroy  flies  and  cockroaches. 
Obtain  from  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C, 
Farmers'  Bulletins  155,  How  Insects  Affect  Health;  74,  Milk  as  a 
Food;  and  375,  Care  of  Food  in  the  Home.  These  are  free.  Many 
practical  suggestions  for  the  care  of  foods  will  te  found  in  them. 


CHAPTER  SEVEN 

THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  WORK 

SUPPOSE  that  you  are  hungry  and  hold  a  piece  of 
bread  in  your  hand.  Your  brain,  your  muscles,  and 

all  the  parts  of  your 
body  need  the  bread 
to  nourish  them.  How 
can  you  get  the  bread 
to  them?  By  eating 
it,  of  course.  It  may 
seem  strange  that  the 
way  to  the  brain  is 
down  the  throat,  but 

nevertheless  this  is  the 
road  the  food  travels 

to  get  to  the  brain. 
Is  a  piece  of  bread 

as  you  hold  it  in  your 

FIG.  13.    The  alimentary  canal.       -111,  i 

hand  ready  to  be  used 

by  the  different  parts  of  the  body?  Where  does  it  go 
after  you  eat  it  and  what  happens  to  it?  We  speak 
about  digesting  our  food,  but  what  do  we  mean  by 
digestion?  We  hear  people  talk  about  having  trouble 
with  their  digestive  organs.  What  organs  are  these, 
where  are  they,  what  do  they  do?  What  difference 
does  it  make  to  us  if  they  do  get  out  of  order?  In 
this  chapter  we  shall  find  the  answers  to  some  of 
these  questions. 

Where  the  food  goes  after  it  is  eaten.     After 
the  food  is  eaten,  it  passes  from  the  mouth  into 

36 


THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  WORK    27 

the  throat,  and  then  into  the  esophagus.  At  the 
lower  end  of  the  esophagus  it  enters  the  stomach,  and 
from  the  stomach  it  passes  on  into  the  small  intestine 
and  the  large  intestine.  As  the  food  passes  through 
this  long  canal,  it  is  digested  and  then  taken  through 
the  wall  of  the  intestine  into  the  blood. 

What  happens  to  food  during  digestion.  The 
food  that  we  eat  goes  into  the  stomach  in  a  dough- 
like  mass.  Before  it  can  be  used  by  the  body,  it  must 
soak  through  the  wall  of 
the  intestine  and  get  into 
the  blood.  To  get  through 
this  wall,  the  food  must  be 
dissolved.  The  saliva  of 
the  mouth  and  the  juices  in 
the  stomach  and  intestine 
act  on  the  foods  in  such  a  way 
as  to  dissolve  them.  The  pro- 
cess of  dissolving  the  foods  is 
called  digestion,  and  no  solid 
food  can  get  into  the  blood 
until  it  has  been  digested. 

Digestion  in  the  mouth,     empties  it    into    the  mouth 
In  the  mouth  the  food  is    through  a  little  tube  or  duct. 

ground  into  pieces  by  the  teeth,  and  is  mixed 
with  the  saliva.  The  saliva  dissolves  some  of  the 
starch  and  thus  begins  the  process  of  digestion.  The 
saliva  comes  from  three  pairs  of  salivary  glands. 


28 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


These  lie  under  the  tongue,  under  the  back  corners 
of  the  lower  jaw,  and  in  the  cheeks  below  and  in 
front  of  the  ears.  Each  gland  is  a  little  structure 
that  forms  saliva  and  empties  it  into  the  mouth 
through  a  small  tube  or  duct. 

The  stomach.    After  the  food  has  been  ground  by 
the  teeth  and  moistened  by  the  saliva,  it  is  swallowed 


jrom  liver 


gall  bladder        ~^'     Pancreas 
FIG.  15.    The  stomach. 

and  passes  down  into  the  stomach.  One  use  of  the 
stomach  is  to  serve  as  a  storehouse  for  food,  so  that 
a  considerable  amount  of  food  can  be  eaten  at  one 
time  and  kept  until  the  body  can  use  it.  The  stom- 
ach also  pours  out  gastric  juice  on  the  food.  The 
gastric  juice  digests  a  large  part  of  the  meat,  eggs, 
and  other  building  foods  and  gets  them  ready  for 
use  in  the  body.  An  acid  in  the  gastric  juice  kills 
most  of  the  bacteria  that  get  into  the  stomach  in 


THE  DIGESTIVE   ORGANS  AND   THEIR   WORK    2§ 

food  and  water,  and  thus  helps  to  protect  us  from 
disease  germs. 

The  liver  and  the  pancreas.  The  liver,  which 
weighs  nearly  four  pounds,  lies  on  the  right  side  of 
the  body,  opposite  the  stomach.  It  makes  a  green- 
ish yellow  liquid  called  bile.  This  liquid  flows  into 
the  small  intestine  through  a  duct  from  the  liver  and 
assists  in  the  digestion  of  food.  The  pancreas  is  a 
long,  flat  organ  that  lies  below  the  stomach.  It  has 
a  duct  that  joins  the  duct  from  the  liver  and  empties 
into  the  small  intestine.  The  juice  from  the  pan- 
creas does  a  very  important  part  of  the  work  of 
digesting  the  foods  hi  the  small  intestine. 

The  small  intestine.  All  along  in  the  walls  of 
the  small  intestine  are  little  glands  that  pour  out 
juices  to  assist  in  the  digestion  of  the  food.  The  food 
moves  slowly  through  the  small  intestine,  which  is 
more  than  twenty  feet  long,  requiring  some  four  or 
five  hours  to  complete  this  part  of  its  journey. 

Digestion  in  the  small  intestine.  After  the 
food  passes  from  the  stomach  into  the  small  intes- 
tine, the  juices  from  the  liver  and  pancreas  are 
poured  in  with  it,  and  the  juices  from  the  intestinal 
glands  also  are  mixed  with  it.  As  the  food  moves 
slowly  along  the  intestine,  the  juices  finish  the  pro- 
cess of  digestion.  The  food  then  soaks  through 
into  the  great  network  of  little  blood  vessels  that  are 
hi  the  wall  of  the  intestine,  and  is  carried  all  through 
the  body.  Thus  the  solid  food  that  we  eat  is  dis- 


30  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

solved  and  taken  into  the  body  to  nourish  all  its 
parts. 

The  large  intestine.  In  all  food  there  is  some 
refuse  matter  like  the  woody  matter  in  cabbages  and 
potatoes,  the  skins  of  fruits,  and  the  tough  fibers 
of  meats.  This  matter  passes  on  into  the  large  intes- 
tine. Nothing  is  more  important  to  the  health  than 


FIG.  1 6.  The  lining  of  the  small  intestine  is  thickly  covered 
with  little  finger-like  structures  called  mill.  The  digested  food 
is  absorbed  into  the  blood  vessels  that  are  in  these  structures. 
The  picture  shows  villi  highly  magnified. 

that  this  refuse  matter  be  cleared  out  of  the  large 
intestine  every  day  and  not  allowed  to  lie  in  the 
intestine  to  sour  and  decay. 

The  importance  of  caring  for  the  digestive 
organs.  The  work  of  digesting  the  food  is  so  im- 
portant that  the  organs  that  do  this  work  fill  nearly 
the  whole  cavity  of  the  body.  "It  is  not  what  we 
eat  but  what  we  digest  that  makes  us  strong."  This 


THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  AND  THEIR  WORK    31 

is  an  old  saying,  and  it  is  a  true  one.  We  cannot 
have  strong  bodies  if  we  do  not  have  healthy  diges- 
tive organs  to  prepare  food  for  them.  In  the  next 
chapter  we  shall  study  some  ways  of  keeping  the 
digestive  organs  in  health. 

Questions:  i.  What  do  the  digestive  juices  do  to  the  foods 
during  digestion?  2.  What  digestive  juice  is  found  in  the 
mouth?  3.  Where  does  it  come  from?  4.  How  many 
pairs  of  salivary  glands  are  there?  5.  Where  are  they  found? 
6.  Give  two  uses  of  the  stomach.  7.  What  kind  of  foods 
does  the  gastric  juice  digest?  8.  What  does  the  acid  in 
the  gastric  juice  do?  9.  Where  is  the  liver  found  in  the 
body?  TO.  How  large  is  it?  n.  What  liquid  comes  from 
it?  12.  Where  in  the  body  is  the  pancreas?  13.  Into 
what  is  the  juice  from  the  pancreas  emptied?  14.  How 
long  is  the  small  intestine?  15.  What  is  found  along  its 
walls?  1 6.  How  long  does  it  take  the  food  to  pass  through 
the  small  intestine?  17.  What  is  happening  to  the  food 
while  it  makes  this  journey?  18.  Where  does  the  food  go 
after  it  has  been  digested?  19.  What  part  of  our  food  goes 
on  into  the  large  intestine?  20.  Why  is  it  important  for 
us  to  care  for  our  digestive  organs? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Where  the  gastric 
juice  comes  from,  and  what  habits  the  pupils  have  that  may  inter- 
fere with  the  flow  of  it.  Work  out  the  continuous  story  of  the 
movements  and  digestion  of  food  in  the  alimentary  canal. 

Illustrate  absorption  by  showing  how  salt  or  sugar  dissolved  in 
water  will  pass  thrpugh  a  paper.  Show  digestion  by  putting  a  cube 
of  hard  boiled  white  of  egg  into  a  glass  of  water  with  a  few  drops  of 
acid  and  a  little  pepsin.  The  lining  of  a  calf's  stomach  dried  and 
pulverized  may  be  used  instead  of  pepsin.  Prepare  materials  in 
another  glass  in  the  same  way,  but  first  cut  the  egg  into  fine  pieces 
to  show  the  advantages  of  thoroughly  chewing  food.  Set  both 
glasses  in  a  warm  place  (about  100  degrees  is  best)  for  a  few  hours. 


CHAPTER  EIGHT 


KEEPING  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  IN  HEALTH 

'"AN  army  travels  on  its  stom- 
ach." This  saying,  or  one  like 
it,  has  been  repeated  by  the 
world's  greatest  generals,  and 
it  is  said  that  Napoleon  once 
remarked,  "  A  soldier  is  a  stom- 
ach." These  words  mean  that 
no  matter  how  brave  a  soldier  is, 
he  cannot  do  his  best  if  he  does 
not  get  enough  food  or  if  his 
stomach  is  out  of  order.  Our 
happiness  and  usefulness  in  life 
depend  very  much  upon  the 
way  we  digest  our  food.  But 
to  know  this  truth  is  not 
enough.  Napoleon  knew  it, 
yet  he  died  of  a  disease  of  the 
stomach.  To  keep  the  diges- 
tive organs  in  health  requires 
doing  as  well  as  knowing. 

Exercise  and  the  diges- 
tive organs.  Physical  exer- 
cise gives  the  muscles  and  nerves 
a  tone  and  a  vigor  that  they 
lack  without  it.  The  digestive  organs  seem  to  catch 
this  vigor  from  the  muscles  and  nervous  system ; 
for  when  we  exercise  they  digest  without  any  diffi- 
culty whatever  almost  anything  that  we  may  eat. 

32 


FIG.  17.  A  hardy  Amer- 
ican soldier.  It  was  be- 
cause he  was  well  fed 
that  he  was  able  to 
conquer. 


KEEPING  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  IN  HEALTH      33 

On  the  other  hand,  if  we  allow  our  muscles  to  be- 
come soft  and  flabby,  our  digestive  organs  also  will 
lose  their  tone  and  become  sluggish  in  their  work. 
Vigorous  games,  sports  like  running,  rowing, 
hill-climbing,  swimming,  skating,  and  riding,  and 
spirited  labor  are  what  is  needed  to  key  the  body 
up  to  the  proper  state  for  work.  The  excitement 
and  thrill  of  the  work  or  play  is  a  necessary  part  of 
the  exercise ;  and  gentle  walking,  mild  games,  or 
plodding  labor  will  not  serve  the  same  purpose. 

The  importance  of  thoroughly  chewing  the 
food.  Some  persons  have  found  their  health  very 
greatly  improved  by  making  it  a  rule  to  eat  slowly 
and  to  chew  every  mouthful  of  food  into  a  perfect 
paste.  Food  ground  into  bits  by  the  teeth  is  digested 
and  dissolved  more  quickly  in  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tine than  food  that  has  been  swallowed  in  large  pieces, 
and  eating  quietly  and  slowly  gives  the  nervous 
system  which  regulates  the  digestive  organs  a  chance 
to  settle  down  and  do  its  work  properly.  This 
latter  point  is  important,  for  much  digestive  trouble 
is  due  to  a  disturbed  nervous  system  rather  than  to 
any  defect  in  the  digestive  organs  themselves. 

Drinking  liquids  at  meals.  A  glass  or  two  of 
water  taken  at  mealtime  hastens  the  digestion  of  the 
food.  Drinking  a  glass  of  water  before  breakfast 
helps  digestion  by  washing  out  the  stomach  and 
starting  the  flow  of  gastric  juice.  Taking  a  large 
supply  of  water  daily  also  causes  the  wastes  to  be 


34 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


an     adult 
4   pints 


a 


moved  more  rapidly  along  the  intestine,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved to  help  in  the  prevention  of  lumbago  and  gout. 
The  amount  of  water  needed  depends  on  the  amount 
in  the  food  used  and  the  amount  lost  in  perspiration. 

It  is  often  said  that  on 
an    average 
should   take 
day. 

Eating  too  much  at 
one  time.  An  impor- 
tant cause  of  indigestion 
is  eating  too  much  at 
one  time.  Often  this  is 
done  because  too  little 
was  eaten  at  another 
time.  Eat  your  meals 
regularly  and  do  not 
at  times  overload  your 
stomach  with  more  food 
than  it  can  digest  for 
many  hours. 

Eating  a  whole  meal  of  one  kind  of  food. 
Sometimes  we  find  a  child  who  wants  to  make  a 
whole  meal  of  some  one  article  of  food  that  he  par- 
ticularly likes.  Eating  in  this  way  throws  all  the 
work  upon  one  of  the  digestive  juices  while  the  other 
juices  are  idle. 

Eating  at  irregular  times.  Our  digestive  organs 
are  ready  to  digest  a  meal  at  the  time  at  which  we 


FIG.  18.  Gladstone  believed  that 
his  vigorous  old  age  was  largely 
due  to  his  habit  of  cutting  food 
into  small  pieces  and  chewing  it 
thoroughly. 


KEEPING  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  IN  HEALTH     35 

usually  eat.  Therefore  one  should  not  eat  dinner  at 
twelve  o'clock  one  day  and  at  two  o'clock  the  next 
day.  Do  not  get  so  busy  at  your  play  that  you  do 
not  have  time  to  eat,  and  do  not  form  the  habit  of 
eating  between  meals  or  whenever  you  can  get  some- 
thing that  you  like  to  eat.  Have  regular  hours  for 
your  meals  and  give  your  digestive  organs  a  chance 
to  rest  between  meals,  for  they  need  time  for  rest 
just  as  much  as  your  muscles  do. 

Nourishing  lunches.  School  children  who  can- 
not go  home  for  their  meals  at  noon  often  eat  lunches 
that  are  made  up  mostly  of  some  one  article,  as  pie, 
cake,  candy,  fruit,  or  ice  cream.  Those  who  do  so 
will  sooner  or  later  suffer  as  a  result.  A  good  school 
lunch  must  have  building  as  well  as  heating  and 
strengthening  foods,  and  it  should  be  planned  as 
carefully  as  any  other  meal. 

Some  schools  in  large  towns  and  cities  now 
serve  well-prepared  lunches.  Where  this  is  done  the 
teachers  find  that  many  pupils  gain  in  health  and 
do  better  work  than  before. 

Candy  is  composed  chiefly  of  sugar,  and  when 
taken  in  small  amounts  and  with  other  foods  it  is 
very  nourishing.  But  the  person  who  eats  a  whole 
bag  of  candy  at  one  time  treats  his  stomach  about 
as  unwisely  as  if  he-  should  drink  a  whole  cupful  of 
thick  sugar  sirup  at  once. 

Coarse  foods  necessary  to  the  health.  The 
body  needs  a  considerable  quantity  of  such  foods  as 


36  PRIMER   OF  HYGIEN~E 

wheat  bread,  corn  bread,  potatoes,  cabbages,  tur- 
nips, and  other  foods  that  have  large  amounts  of 
tough  refuse  matter  in  them.  These  bulky  mate- 
rials cause  the  wastes  to  be  more  promptly  moved 
along  the  large  intestine.  This  is  very  necessary, 
for  if  the  wastes  are  allowed  to  lie  in  the  large  in- 
testine bacteria  will  grow  in  them  and  form  poisons. 
These  poisons  will  then  pass  through  the  wall  of  the 
intestine  into  the  blood,  poisoning  the  whole  body 


FIG.  19.     Outdoor  life  and  exercise  are  very  important  in  keeping 
the  digestive  organs  in  health. 

and  causing  headaches.  Those  who  live  upon  the 
choicest  and  most  expensive  foods  have  health  little, 
if  any,  better  than  have  those  who  live  on  the  plain- 
est and  simplest  fare.  Probably  the  principal  reason 
for  this  is  that  those  who  live  on  a  plain  diet  get  more 
of  the  coarser  kinds  of  food  and  the  wastes  are  more 
promptly  moved  along  through  the  intestine. 


KEEPING  DIGESTIVE   ORGANS  /AT  HEALTH     37 

Alcohol  injurious  to  the  digestive  organs. 

Beer,  wine,  and  whisky  contain  alcohol,  and  they  are 
all  harmful  to  the  digestive  organs.  They  injure 
the  stomach  especially  and  interfere  with  its  work, 
so  that  hard  masses  of  food  pass  undigested  into 
the  intestine.  Bacteria  then  grow  in  this  food 
and  form  poisons  that  are  carried  through  the  body. 
Alcohol  is  also  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  disease  of 
the  liver. 

Questions:  i.  Why  is  it  important  to  keep  the  digestive 
organs  in  health  ?  2.  What  must  we  do  in  order  to  get  any 
benefit  from  the  study  of  rules  of  hygiene?  3.  What  effect 
has  exercise  on  the  digestive  organs  ?  4.  What  effect  on  di- 
gestion has  thorough  chewing  of  the  food?  5.  Why  should 
water  be  taken  at  meals?  6.  In  what  other  ways  does 
taking  an  abundant  supply  of  water  benefit  the  health? 
7.  Name  a  common  cause  of  indigestion.  8.  Give  one 
reason  why  too  much  food  is  often  eaten  at  one  time.  9.  Why 
should  every  meal  be  made  up  of  several  kinds  of  food? 

10.  Why    should    we    eat    at    regular   hours    every    day? 

1 1 .  What  are  some  foods  that  should  not  be  taken  for  lunch  ? 

12.  Of  what  is  candy  chiefly  made?     13.   Why  should  one 
eat  only  a  small  amount  of  candy  at  one  time?     14.   Why 
are  coarse  foods  necessary?     15.   What  effect  has  alcohol  on 
the  digestive  organs  ? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Healthful 
school  lunches.  Necessity  for  the  leisurely  eating  of  school 
lunches. 

Thompson's  Food  for  the  Sick  and  the  Well  (World  Book  Com- 
pany, Yonkers-on-Hudson,  N.  Y.)  is  a  collection  of  recipes  for  the 
preparation  of  foods  so  that  they  will  be  especially  easy  of  diges- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  NINE 

THE   CARE  OF  THE  TEETH 

THE  mouth  cavity  has  been  called  the  Gateway  of 
Life,  and  the  care  of  the  mouth  may  well  be  called 
the  first  step  on  the  Highway  to 
-enamel  Health.  All  about  us  are  persons 
who  pay  a  great  deal  of  attention 
to  the  purity  of  their  food.  Yet 
the  teeth  of  many  of  these  persons 
are  so  unclean  and  so  decayed  that 
they  cannot  chew  a  single  bite  of 
food  without  filling  it  with  mil- 
lions of  bacteria.  It  is  hardly  worth 


person  who  is  going  to  spoil  every 
bit  of  it  before  he  swallows  it,  and  the  health  of 
the  nation  demands  that  the  people  have  a  better 
understanding  of  the  importance  of  the  teeth. 

Importance  of  caring  for  the  teeth.  In  the 
United  States  army  a  man  is  not  accepted  as  a  sol- 
dier unless  his  teeth  are  in  good  condition.  This  is 
because  bad  teeth  mean  poor  digestion,  and  without 
good  digestion  no  man  is  fit  for  the  hard  service  of  a 
soldier.  Some  foreign  life  insurance  companies 
employ  dentists  to  care  for  the  teeth  of  their  policy 
holders,  because  they  find  it  is  cheaper  to  do  this 
than  to  pay  for  the  sickness  and  deaths  that  are 
caused  by  bad  teeth.  Medical  inspection  of  275,000 
school  children  in  New  York  City  showed  that  more 
than  one  half  of  them  had  teeth  that  needed  treat- 

38 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  TEETH  39 

ment,  while  dental  inspection  made  of  the  public 
school  children  in  Boston  and  in  Cleveland  showed 
that  from  95  to  97  per  cent  of  the  children  had  teeth 
needing  attention. 

Unclean  and  decaying  teeth  a  cause  of  ill 
health.  Unclean  teeth  and  decaying  teeth  form  a 
breeding  place  for  millions  of  bacteria  of  many  differ- 
ent kinds.  These  bacteria  become  mixed  with  the 
food  while  it  is  being  chewed,  and  all  day  they 
are  passing  down  the  throat  in  streams.  In  the 
stomach  and  intestine  they  ferment  and  spoil  the 
food,  and  in  this  way  seriously  interfere  with  the 
healfrb  of  the  body.  Decaying  teeth  and  sore  gums 
also  cause  people  to  swallow  their  food  without 
chewing  it  properly,  and  we  have  already  learned 
how  this  is  harmful  to  the  digestion.  It  is  believed 
also  that  bad  teeth  are  a  cause  of  adenoids  (page  59) 
and  of  trouble  in  the  nose. 

Unclean  teeth  and  bad  teeth  a  cause  of  germ 
diseases.  Bad  teeth  and  unclean  teeth  cause  disease 
in  two  ways.  In  the  first  place,  they  interfere  with 
the  digestion  and  weaken  the  body,  so  that  if  disease 
germs  get  into  the  body  we  are  not  able  to  resist  them. 
One  of  the  first  things  to  do  in  the  treatment  of  a 
consumptive  is  to  get  the  teeth  in  good  condition, 
so  that  the  food  will  nourish  the  body  and  build 
up  the  strength.  In  the  second  place,  unclean  and 
decaying  teeth  allow  disease  germs  to  enter  the  body. 
The  same  germs  that  cause  sore  gums,  abscesses  in 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


the  mouth,  and  decay  in  the  teeth,  also  cause  tonsilli- 
tis, sore  throat,  appendicitis,  and  rheumatism. 
Many  cases  of  heart  disease  and 
kidney  disease  are  due  to  the  same 
cause.  Often  germs  are  carried  in 
the  blood  from  diseased  teeth  to 
other  parts  of  the  body,  where 
they  set  up  their  growth;  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  bad  teeth 
cause  not  only  indigestion  but  also 
many  other  forms  of  disease. 

Decay  of  the  teeth  caused  by 
failure  to  keep  them  clean.  De- 
cay of  the  teeth  is  caused  by  bac- 
teria growing  in  the  matter  that 
sticks  to  the  teeth  and  lodges  be- 
tween them.  Clearly,  then,  the 
way  to  keep  the  teeth  from  decay- 
ing is  to  keep  them  clean.  They 
ought  to  be  cleaned  every  time 
they  are  used,  just  as  our  dishes 
are  washed  every  time  they  are 
used.  To  keep  them  sound  they 
ought  at  least  to  be  washed  after 


FIG.  21.  Hang  your 
toothbrush  up  by 
itself,  for  if  several 
brushes  are  kept  in 
the  same  holder 
they  bring  together 
many  different 
kinds  of  germs. 
(After  Ferguson  s 


"  A  Child's  Book  of  breakfast  and  before  going  to  bed. 
Washing  the  mouth  thoroughly 
with  salt  water  before  breakfast  saves  the  digestive 
organs  from  the  millions  of  bacteria  that  have  grown 
in  the  mouth  during  the  night.  In  cleaning  the  teeth, 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  TEE7H  41 

brush  them  thoroughly  both  inside  and  out,  and  bru§h 
them  downwards  rather  than  side  wise.  A  moderately 
stiff  brush  should  be  used,  even  though  the  gums  bleed 
at  first,  for  the  gums  need  the  exercise.  A  tooth 
powder  or  tooth  paste  is  a  great  help  in  getting  the 
teeth  clean.  It  is  very  important  to  remove  food 
from  between  the  teeth,  for  decay  nearly  always 
begins  in  the  places  where  the  food  lodges.  Sore 
gums  can  usually  be  cured  by  keeping  the  teeth  clean. 

Bad  teeth  a  cause  of  decay  in  other  teeth.  As 
germs  from  a  case  of  diphtheria  may  spread  through 
a  whOjle  classroom  and  cause  the  disease  in  every 
child  in  the  room,  so  germs  may  spread  from  a  cavity 
in  a  tooth  and  cause  decay  in  other  teeth.  We  should 
therefore  watch  for  decayed  teeth  and  have  them 
attended  to  promptly,  because  a  single  neglected 
tooth  may  cause  the  decay  of  several  others. 

Visiting  the  dentist.  No  matter  how  faithfully 
one  may  brush  his  teeth,  he  cannot  keep  them  en- 
tirely clean  without  the  aid  of  a  dentist.  Between 
the  teeth  and  particularly  between  the  back  molars 
there  are  narrow  spaces  which  the  brush  cannot 
reach.  It  is  also  hard  to  clean  the  pits  in  the  grind- 
ing surfaces  of  the  teeth  or  to  keep  material  from 
collecting  along  the  gums  by  using  a  brush.  Parti- 
cles lodged  in  these  spaces  quickly  become  filled 
with  bacteria,  which  form  acids  that  destroy  the 
enamel  of  the  teeth.  Mineral  salts  from  the  saliva 
are  deposited  over  these  masses  of  bacteria,  forming 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


hard  films  which  no  amount  of  brushing  will  clear 
away,  although  a  dentist  can  easily  remove  them. 
A  visit  to  the  dentist  should  be  made  once  every 
three  months  to  have  the  teeth  cleaned.  He  can 


iM 

---rO       'J   i    - .  '  4    _  ti  r^        —4* 


FIG.  22.  Both  of  these  teeth  might  have  been  saved  if  they  had 
been  attended  to  at  the  first  sign  of  decay,  or  even  when  they 
were  as  shown  in  the  drawing  at  the  left.  In  the  drawing  at  the 
right  pus  has  formed  at  the  foot  of  the  molar  and  it  may  be  nec- 
essary to  pull  it.  (After  Ferguson.) 

then  find  and  fill  any  small  cavities  before  they  be- 
come large  enough  to  be  painful  or  to  make  pulling 
necessary.  The  loss  of  a  tooth  is  a  serious  matter, 
for  it  affects  the  grinding  power  of  four  others,  and 
no  bridgework  or  artificial  teeth  can  cut  and  grind 
the  food  so  thoroughly  as  the  natural  teeth. 

The  danger  of  breaking  the  enamel.  The  ex- 
posed part  of  a  tooth  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  very 
hard,  glistening,  white  material  called  enamel.  This 
is  brittle  like  glass,  and  can  be  easily  chipped  and 
broken.  If  the  enamel  of  a  tooth  is  once  broken  off, 
it  is  never  replaced,  and  the  tooth  is  likely  to  decay. 
Biting  on  hard  objects  like  nuts,  opening  a  knife 
blade  with  the  teeth,  picking  the  teeth  with  a  pin 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  TEETH  43 

or  metal  toothpick,  and  similar  acts,  should  be 
avoided,  as  they  are  likely  to  splinter  the  enamel. 

Caring  for  the  first  set  of  teeth.  The  first  set  of 
teeth  need  the  care  of  a  dentist  as  much  as  the  second 
set.  Bad  teeth  are  harmful  to  a  child  as  well  as 
to  a  grown  person.  If  his  food  is  not  properly 
chewed  and  if  bacteria  are  constantly  passing  down 
his  throat,  the  child  must  suffer  just  as  any  one  else 
would.  And  a  toothache  or  other  pain  is  likely  to 
have  worse  effects  upon  a  child  than  upon  an  older 
persoi^.  If  cavities  in  the  teeth  of  the  first  set  are 
not  filled,  the  decay  may  spread  to  the  teeth  of  the 
second  set  as  they  come  in.  If  the  first  teeth  are 
pulled,  the  jaw^s  sometimes  fail  to  grow  as  they 
should,  and  for  lack  of  space  the  second  teeth  may 
come  in  crowded  and  uneven.  Another  important 
reason  for  keeping  the  first  set  of  teeth  sound  is  to 
prevent  the  child  from  forming  the  habit  of  swallow- 
ing his  food  unchewed. 

Straightening  irregular  teeth.  Because  of 
breathing  through  the  mouth,  thumb-sucking,  insuffi- 
cient use  in  chewing,  or  for  other  reasons,  the  teeth 
sometimes  come  in  crooked.  This  not  only  makes 
them  less  useful  than  they  should  be  in  chewing  the 
food,  but  spoils  the  appearance  of  the  face.  Wonders 
in  straightening  the  teeth  can  be  done  by  a  dentist 
who  understands  this  kind  of  work.  Not  only  can  ir- 
regular teeth  be  straightened,  but  the  crowded  teeth 
of  a  young  person  can  be  spread  apart,  and  the 


44  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

bones  of  the  jaw  can  be  made  to  grow  until  the  teeth 
have  room.  In  this  way  a  weak-looking  chin  can  be 
made  to  grow  into  one  that  is  square  and  strong. 


FIGS.  23  and  24.  The  first  of  these  plaster  casts  was  made  be- 
fore this  boy's  teeth  were  straightened.  The  second  cast  was 
made  after  the  work  was  completed.  The  boy's  teeth  were 
saved  and  his  appearance  improved;  but  trouble  and  expense 
might  have  been  avoided  if  his  teeth  had  been  cared  for  from  the 
very  beginning.  (After  Jackson's  "  Orlhodontia.") 

The  advantage  of  having  good  teeth.  Good 
teeth  are  important  from  the  standpoint  of  health, 
but  there  are  still  other  good  reasons  why  you  should 
keep  your  teeth  white  and  clean.  See  how  many  of 
these  reasons  you  can  give. 

Questions  :  i.  Mention  some  facts  that  show  how  impor- 
tant the  teeth  are.  2.  Tell  two  ways  in  which  bad  teeth 
injure  the  health.  3.  Give  two  ways  by  which  bad  teeth 
cause  germ  diseases.  4.  What  causes  decay  in  teeth? 
5.  How  can  decay  be  prevented?  6.  How  often  ought  the 
teeth  to  be  cleaned?  7.  Why  is  it  important  to  remove 
particles  of  food  from  between  the  teeth?  8.  What  effect 


THE  -CARE  OF  THE  TEETH  45 

has  a  decaying  tooth  on  the  other  teeth?  9.  Tell  why  it 
is  best  to  visit  a  dentist  occasionally  and  have  the  teeth 
given  the  care  that  they  need.  10.  What  is  enamel? 

11.  Mention  some  ways  by  which  the  enamel  may  be  injured. 

12.  What  often  happens  if  the  enamel  on  a  tooth  is  broken? 

13.  Why  should  the  first  set  of  teeth   be  cared  for  by  a 
dentist?     14.   What    should   be   done    with    crowded   and 
uneven  teeth? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Why  a  tooth 
aches.  ^Illustrate  structure  by  decayed  teeth,  which  may  be  secured 
from  a  dentist.)  How  to  distinguish  the  first  permanent  molar 
from  a  temporary  tooth.  What  happens  to  meat  or  other  food 
matter  if  it  is  left  in  a  warm  place  like  the  mouth.  How  the  teeth 
can  be  kept  clean  by  a  child  who  has  no  toothbrush.  What  it 
would  cost  to  buy  toothbrushes  for  a  person  for  twenty  years, 
and  what  it  costs  to  have  a  badly  decayed  set  of  teeth  repaired. 

The  first  permanent  molars,  which  come  in  about  the  sixth  or 
seventh  year,  are  often  mistaken  for  temporary  teeth  and  are 
allowed  to  decay.  Count  the  double  teeth ;  when  there  are  three 
double  teeth  on  one  side  of  the  jaw,  the  back  one  is  a  permanent 
tooth. 

One  of  the  most  important  medical  discoveries  of  recent  years  is 
that  many  (probably  most)  cases  of  chronic  rheumatism,  heart 
disease,  kidney  disease,  catarrh,  and  other  serious  ailments  are 
due  to  infections  of  the  tonsils,  at  the  roots  of  the  teeth,  or  in  the 
cavities  of  the  bones  of  the  face.  From  these  foci  of  infection  the 
germs  spread  to  other  parts  of  the  body,  and  often  the  only  suc- 
cessful treatment  for  these  chronic  ailments  is  to  break  up  the 
permanent  breeding  places  of  the  germs  that  cause  them.  The 
care  of  the  teeth  is  far  more  important  than  was  understood  until 
very  recently,  and  the  teacher  should  give  this  topic  all  possible 
emphasis 


CHAPTER  TEN 

THE  AIR  WE  BREATHE 

WHEN  our  armies  were  making  their  victorious 
drive  in  France,  the  soldiers  sometimes  endured 
hunger  and  thirst  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  re- 
treating enemy  had  left  stores  of  food  behind  and 
that  there  were  wells  and  springs  everywhere.  But 
the  men  would  touch  neither  water  nor  food  until 
it  had  been  examined  and  found  fit  for  use.  Yet 
when  dense  clouds  of  poison  gas  came  rolling  across 
the  fields,  these  same  men  kept  breathing,  although 
they  knew  that  to  take  it  into  the  lungs  would  cause 
intense  suffering  and  possibly  death.  Spoiled  food 
and  unclean  water  we  can  refuse,  but  the  air  that 
comes  to  us  we  must  breathe,  whether  it  be  pure  or 
impure.  Nearly  a  thousand  times  an  hour  we  take 
a  fresh  supply  into  the  lungs.  It  is  clear  that  no 
dwelling,  schoolhouse,  or  factory  should  be  built 
without  providing  some  way  of  giving  the  people 
who  must  live  or  work  in  it  a  supply  of  fresh,  life- 
giving  air. 

Why  the  body  must  have  air.  About  one  fifth 
of  the  air  is  oxygen.  Oxygen  is  constantly  used  in  the 
body,  and  without  it  we  cannot  live  for  even  five 
minutes.  Set  a  glass  vessel  over  a  burning  candle  so 
that  no  air  can  get  in,  and  you  will  see  the  flame 
slowly  die  out  for  lack  of  oxygen.  So  the  heat  and 

strength  and  life  of  your  body  will  die  out  if  its 

46 


THE  AIR    WE  BREATHE 


47 


supply  of  oxygen  is  cut  off.    The  first  reason  why  the 
body  needs  air  is  to  get  oxygen. 

All  the  time  we  are  breathing  out  from  the  lungs  a 
gas  called  carbon  dioxid.  In  too  large  quantities  this 
gas  is  poisonous.  We  must  therefore  keep  breathing 
the  air  into  the  lungs  in  order  that,  as  it  passes  out 
again,  it  may  carry  the  carbon  dioxid  out  of  the  body. 
TJie  second  reason  why 
we  rnu^t  have  air  is  to  get 
rid  of  carbon  dioxid. 

Heat  is  constantly 
being  produced  in  the 
body,  and  to  keep  the 
body  temperature  from 
rising  too  high  this 
heat  must  be  given 
off.  It  is  lost  chiefly 
through  the  air  that 
comes  in  contact  with 
the  body  and  by  the 


opening 
of  tube 
from 
the  ear 


evaporation  of  the 
sweat  from  the  skin 
The  third  reason  why 
we  need  air  is  to  carry 
off  the  body  heat. 

Why  ventilation  is  necessary.  Under  ordi- 
nary conditions  we  have  plenty  of  oxygen  and  we 
do  not  suffer  because  of  too  much  carbon  dioxid. 
Ventilation  is  necessary,  therefore,  for  the  proper 


larynx 


FIG.  25.     The  air  passages  of  the 
head  and  throat. 


48  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

regulation  of  body  heat.  The  important  points  in 
ventilation  are  the  temperature  and  motion  of  the 
air,  and  the  amount  of  moisture  in  it. 

Moisture,  temperature,  and  motion  important 
in  ventilation.  In  crowded  rooms  the  air  is  often 
laden  with  moisture,  causing  the  people  to  suffer 
from  overheating  and  headache.  In  such  rooms  the 
temperature  should  be  kept  down  to  65  degrees,  as 
much  fresh  air  as  possible  should  be  admitted,  and 
motion  should  be  set  up  in  the  air  by  opening  doors 
and  windows  or  by  electric  fans. 

In  rooms  heated  by  hot  air,  the  air  is  frequently 
very  dry  and  evaporates  the  sweat  so  rapidly  that 
persons  in  the  room  feel  chilly  even  with  the  tem- 
perature as  high  as  75  degrees.  Where  heating  sys- 
tems of  this  kind  are  used,  there  should  be  some 
arrangement  for  moistening  the  air  until  the  rooms 
will  be  comfortable  at  68  degrees. 

How  to  obtain  fresh  air.  Every  school  build- 
ing or  other  building  where  many  people  gather  to- 
gether ought  to  have  some  system  of  forcing  in 
fresh  air  and  drawing  off  the  air  that  has  been  used. 
Where  this  has  not  been  provided  for,  we  must  get 
as  much  fresh  air  as  possible  in  some  other  way. 
By  a  little  experimenting,  it  will  often  be  found 
that  certain  windows  in  a  room  can  be  opened  with- 
out causing  harmful  draughts  on  any  one.  Open- 
ing several  windows  a  little  is  usually  a  good  way 
to  ventilate  a  room.  A  common  method  is  to  set  a 


THE  AIR    WE  BREATHE 


49 


board  under  a  window  (as  shown  in  Figure  26) 
while  another  window  on  the  same  side  of  the  room 
is  lowered  from  the  top.  Often  by  lowering  all  the 
windows  slightly  at  the  top  a  great  deal  of  the  hot, 
moist  air  in  a  crowded  room  can  be  got  rid  of  with- 
out causing  coldj  draughts.  Schoolrooms  should  be 
filled  with  fresh  air  while  they  are  empty,  and  at 


FIQ.  26.     How  a  fireplace  and  a  window  board  help  to  ventilate 
a  room.     The  arrows  show  which  way  the  air  is  moving. 

noons  and  recesses  the  windows  should  be  raised  and 
the  fresh  air  allowed  to  pour  in;  for  no  one  can  be 
expected  either  to  learn  his  lessons  or  to  keep  his 
health  in  a  room  that  is  stuffy  and  close  and  filled 
with  ah*  that  has  already  been  breathed. 

Ventilating  sleeping  rooms.  Sleeping  rooms  are 
harder  to  ventilate  than  living  rooms,  because  we 
are  all  the  while  moving  about  through  our 
living  rooms,  and  the  opening  and  closing  of  doors 


PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 


sets  the  air  in  motion.  We  spend  so  much  of  our 
time  in  sleeping  rooms,  however,  that  it  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  the  air  in  them  be  pure. 
Do  not  sleep  in  a  room  where  you  wake  with  a  stuffy 
feeling  in  the  morning,  but  open  the  windows,  or 
in  some  other  way  get  fresh  air  into  your  bedroom. 
Do  not  be  afraid  of  night  air,  for  long  ago  it  was 

proved  to  be  harmless.  A 
current  of  fresh  air  will  do 
no  harm  if  your  body  is 
warmly  covered,  or  if  you 
are  protected  from  a  direct 
draught  by  a  window  board 
or  a  screen. 

Outdoor  sleeping.  The 
best  place-  of  all  to  sleep  is 
out  in  the  fresh  air,  where 
the  warm  air  that  comes 

FIG.  27.  The  best  kind  of  from  the  lungs  is  blown 
sleeping  room  is  out-of-doors,  away  from  the  face.  Usu- 

This  one  was  planned  when  ^  an  UDper  porch  is  the 
the  house  was  built.  It  is  ^ 

open  on  three  sides  and  in  best  place  for  outdoor  sleep- 
summer  is  screened  to  keep  fag  an(J  houses  should  be 
out  flies  and  mosquitoes.  ,  ..  .  ., 

built  with  porches  that  can 

be  used  for  this  purpose.  That  great  benefits 
come  from  open-air  sleeping  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  health  of  persons  who  are  sick  with  con- 
sumption or  pneumonia  is  often  greatly  improved, 
when  they  begin  this  practice. 


THE  AIR  WE  BREATHE  5 1 

Methods  of  heating  and  ventilation.    Gas  and 

oil  heaters  that  have  no  pipes  for  carrying  away  the 
gases  give  off  great  volumes  of  impurities;  and  to 
heat  a  sleeping  room  with  one  of  these  stoves  is  un- 
healthful.  Stoves  and  furnaces  that  leak  coal  gas 
also  are  unhealthful.  Fireplaces  give  good  ventila- 
tion because  they  send  a  current  of  air  up  the  chim- 
ney, and  this  draws  more  ah*  into  the  room.  Vessels 
of  water  should  be  kept  on  stoves  and  on  or  behind 
radiators  to  add  moisture  to  the  air.  When  plants 
grow  well  in  a  room  the  air  is  not  dry  enough  to  be 
harmful  to  the  health. 

Questions :  i.  How  much  of  the  air  is  oxygen?  2.  Why 
must  the  body  get  rid  of  carbon  dioxid?  3.  What  are  the 
three  reasons  why  the  body  must  have  air?  4.  Why  is  ven- 
tilation necessary?  5.  What  are  the  important  points  in 
ventilation?  6.  At  what  temperature  should  a  crowded 
room  be  kept?  7.  What  trouble  is  there  with  the  ventila- 
tion of  buildings  that  are  heated  with  hot  air?  8.  How  may 
this  be  remedied?  9.  Explain  how  a  schoolroom  may  be 
ventilated  without  causing  draughts.  10.  What  may  be 
done  at  recess  to  change  the  air  in  a  room?  n.  Why  is  it 
hard  to  ventilate  sleeping  rooms?  12.  Why  is  it  important 
that  they  be  well  ventilated?  13.  What  is  the  best  of  all 
sleeping  places?  14.  How  is  this  proved?  15.  What  methods 
of  heating  bring  fresh  air  into  a  house? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Ritchie's  Primer  of 
Physiology  gives  a  more  complete  presentation  of  the  newer  ideas 
on  ventilation  than  is  possible  in  the  limited  space  in  this  book. 


CHAPTER  ELEVEN 

THE  LUNGS  AND  AIR  PASSAGES  AND  THEIR  CARE 


FIG.  28.    The  lungs. 

OF  all  the  organs  of  the  body,  the  lungs  and  air 
passages  are  most  frequently  attacked  by  disease 
germs.  Colds,  catarrh,  bronchitis,  and  grip  are  so 
common  that  no  one  entirely  escapes  them,  while 
pneumonia  and  consumption  kill  thousands  of  per- 
sons every  year.  Yet  every  person  can  do  much  to 
avoid  these  diseases  by  taking  a  reasonable  amount 

52 


THE  LUNGS  AND  AIR  PASSAGES  53 

of  care  of  his  breathing  organs  and  by  securing  for 
himself  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.  We  have  learned 
some  ways  by  which  we  may  secure  pure  air;  now 
we  are  going  to  learn  how  to  care  for  the  organs  that 
get  rid  of  carbon  dioxid  and  take  in  oxygen  for  the 
body. 

The  air  passages.  The  air  enters  the  nose 
through  the  nostrils  and  passes  down  into  the  throat 
through  two  openings  at  the  back  of  the  mouth.  It 
then  goes  down  the  windpipe  (trachea),  which  di- 
vides and  enters  the  two  lungs.  These  large  branches 
of  the  trachea  divide  into  smaller  and  smaller 
branches,  as  a  tree  divides  into  small  limbs  and 
twigs,  and  these  smallest  branches  end  in  little  air 
sacs.  The  lungs  are  mainly  composed  of  millions  of 
these  little  tubes  and  the  air  sacs  at  their  ends.  The 
air  which  we  breathe  passes  down  the  windpipe  and 
out  through  the  tubes  into  every  one  of  these  sacs. 

The  blood  purified  in  the  lungs.  In  the  thin, 
delicate  walls  of  the  air  sacs  of  the  lungs  are  great 
numbers  of  very  small  blood  vessels.  As  the  blood 
passes  through  these  vessels  in  fine  little  streams, 
it  takes  up  oxygen  from  the  air  in  the  sacs  and 
gives  off  carbon  dioxid.  The  carbon  dioxid  is  then 
breathed  out  of  the  body,  and  when  the  next  breath 
is  taken  in,  more  oxygen  is  drawn  down  into  the 
lungs. 

The  danger  of  breathing  dust.  Most  of  the 
diseases  of  the  air  passages  and  lungs  are  germ 


54 


PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 


diseases.  Dust  causes  these  diseases,  not  by  carry- 
ing germs  into  the  air  passages,  but  by  wounding 
the  walls  of  the  air  pas- 
sages so  that  germs  al- 
ready in  them  may  get 
a  chance  to  start  grow- 
ing. More  than  one 
fourth  of  all  the  deaths 
among  the  cotton-mill 
workers  in  Rhode 
Island  from  1897  to 
1903  were  caused  by 
consumption;  and  in 
some  trades,  like  metal 
grinding  and  stone  cut- 
ting, more  than  one 
half  of  the  workers  die  of  diseases  of  the  lungs. 
Facts  like  these  show  how  great  is  the  danger  of 
breathing  dust,  and  how  much  care  should  be  taken 
to  keep  it  from  getting  into  the  air  that  we  breathe. 
Keeping  down  dust.  The  streets  of  cities  and 
towns  should  be  kept  sprinkled,  and  where  it  is 
possible  to  do  so,  they  should  be  cleaned  by  flush- 
ing them  with  water  instead  of  by  sweeping  them. 
Sweeping  both  in  schoolrooms  and  in  private  houses 
ought  to  be  done  with  the  windows  open  and 
in  a  way  to  stir  up  as  little  dust  as  possible.  The 
best  way  of  all  to  do  this  is  with  a  vacuum  cleaner, 
which  makes  it  possible  to  get  rid  of  the  dust  more 


FIG.  29.  Dust  should  be  wiped 
from  furniture,  and  should  not  be 
stirred  up  into  the  air. 


THE  LUNGS  AND  AIR  PASSAGES 


55 


completely  than  in  any  other  way.  Dust  on  furniture 
should  not  be  stirred  up  into  the  air,  but  should  be 
wiped  off  with  a  damp  cloth  (a  piece  of  flannel  soaked 
in  paraffin  oil  is  best  for  this  purpose).  Everything 
possible  should  be  done  to  keep  down  dust,  for  where 


FIGS.  30,  31,  and  32.    The  best  way  to  free  a  house  from  dust 
is  with  a  vacuum  cleaner. 

people  are  forced  to  breathe  it,  great  numbers  of  them 
die  from  diseases  of  the  air  passages  and  lungs. 

The  harmfulness  of  crowding  the  lungs. 
When  a  person  sits  at  his  desk  with  his  shoulders 
bent  over,  the  muscles  are  not  able  to  pull  the 
ribs  up  in  breathing,  as  they  could  do  if  he  were 
sitting  erect.  Also,  the  stomach  and  liver  push  up 
and  crowd  the  lungs  from  below.  This  causes  the 
lungs  to  be  only  partly  filled  with  fresh  air. 

The  lungs  can  also  be  crowded  by  tight  clothing 
about  the  chest,  which  keeps  the  ribs  from  moving 
freely;  or  by  tight  belts  or  other  tight  clothing 
about  the  waist,  which  force  the  liver  and  stomach 


56  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

upward  and  hinder  the  movements  of  the  lungs. 
Great  harm  can  be  done  to  the  lungs  by  crowding 
them  in  either  of  these  ways.  In  another  chapter 
(page  81)  we  shall  discuss  the  best  way  of  keeping 
the  body  erect. 

The  effect  of  tobacco  smoke  on  the  air  pas- 
sages and  lungs.    Tobacco  smoke  causes  the  lining 


FIGS.  33  and  34.  The  figure  on  the  left  shows  the  natural  po- 
sition of  the  bones  of  the  trunk.  The  figure  on  the  right  shows 
how  the  ribs  may  be  pressed  in  by  tight  clothing;  the  heart, 
lungs,  and  digestive  organs  are  then  cramped  and  injured. 

of  the  air  passages  to  become  inflamed,  and  a  con- 
siderable number  of  smokers  have  "smoker's  sore 
throat."  The  worst  effect  of  tobacco,  however, 
comes  from  taking  the  smoke  into  the  lungs,  as  cig- 
arette smokers  almost  always  do.  This  is  espe- 
cially injurious  to  the  body,  because  large  amounts 
of  the  poisonous  matter  in  the  tobacco  smoke  pass 
through  the  thin  walls  of  the  air  sacs  into  the  blood 


THE  LUNGS  AND  AIR  PASSAGES  $? 

and  are  carried  all  through  the  body.  Smoking  also 
causes  a  shortness  of  breath,  as  the  cigarette  smoker 
who  tries  to  win  a  race  very  well  knows. 

The  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  lungs  The  chief 
injury  to  the  lungs  and  air  passages  caused  by  alco- 
hol is  that  it  tyakes  them  more  easily  attacked  by 
germ  diseases.  It  has  long  been  known  by  physi- 
cians that  pneumonia  is  much  more  likely  to  kill  a 
user  of  alcohol  than  a  temperate  person,  and  that 
drinkers  suffer  far  more  from  consumption  than  do 
persons  who  use  no  alcohol.  Were  there  no  reason 
but  this  for  not  using  alcohol,  any  one  would  be  fool- 
ish to  drink  it;  for  pneumonia  and  consumption 
are  so  common  that  in  the  part  of  the  United  States 
where  a  record  is  kept  of  deaths,  one  person  in 
five  dies  from  one  or  the  other  of  these  diseases. 

Breathing  exercises.  You  should  stand  erect 
several  times  a  day  and  take  a  few  long,  deep 
breaths.  If  you  have  been  sitting  quietly  at  your 
work  for  some  time,  it  will  make  your  tired  muscles 
more  comfortable  to  stretch  the  arms  and  swing 
them  about.  A  half-dozen  breaths  of  cool,  fresh  air, 
taken  at  an  open  window,  will  do  wonders  toward 
waking  you  up  when  you  have  become  tired  arid 
sleepy  at  your  work.  It  is  good  for  the  whole  body 
to  have  the  carbon  dioxid  emptied  out  of  the  lungs, 
a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen  taken  in,  and  the  heart 
made  to  send  the  blood  more  quickly  on  its  way. 
Vigorous  breathing  exercises  should  not  be  practiced 


58  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

by  persons  who  are  sick  or  weak,  however;  and  they 
are  very  injurious  to  consumptives.  No  one  should 
practice  breathing  exercises  long  enough  to  make 
himself  dizzy. 

Questions  :  i.  What  are  some  of  the  most  common  diseases 
of  the  organs  of  breathing?  2.  How  can  we,  to  some  ex- 
tent at  least,  avoid  these  diseases?  3.  How  does  air  get 
into  the  trachea?  4.  Of  what  are  the  lungs  principally 
made  up?  5.  How  does  the  air  get  into  the  air  sacs?  6. 
How  does  oxygen  get  into  the  blood?  7.  What  is  given  off 
in  exchange  for  oxygen?  8.  In  what  two  ways  may  dust 
cause  injury  to  the  air  passages  and  lungs?  9.  Name  some 
dusty  trades,  and  tell  how  you  know  that  it  is  dangerous  to 
breathe  dust.  10.  What  is  the  best  way  to  clean  the  streets 
of  a  town  or  city?  n.  How  should  a  room  be  swept?  12. 
What  are  the  effects  upon  the  lungs  of  a  stooping  position? 
13.  Why  is  this  injurious?  14.  How  should  clothing  and 
belts  be  made  to  fit?  15.  What  is  the  chief  harm  done  to 
the  organs  of  breathing  by  alcohol?  16.  What  proportion 
of  all  deaths  is  caused  by  pneumonia  and  consumption? 
17.  State  three  ways  in  which  the  habit  of  smoking  is  in- 
jurious. 1 8.  What  are  the  advantages  of  breathing  ex- 
ercises? 19.  What  persons  should  not  take  them? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Plain  furniture  and 
floors  finished  for  use  with  rugs  compared  from  a  hygienic  point 
of  view  with  carpeted  floors  and  plush-covered  furniture.  The 
cost  of  laying  a  hardwood  floor  over  another  floor  compared 
with  the  cost  of  an  equal  area  of  carpet.  How  your  school- 
room can  be  swept  without  raising  dust. 


CHAPTER  TWELVE 

ADENOIDS  AND  ENLARGED  TONSILS 


FIGS.  35  and  36.  A  girl  who  had  an  adenoid  growth  and  the 
same  girl  six  and  one  half  months  after  the  growth  was  re- 
moved. 

THERE  are  certain  troubles  of  the  nose  and  throat 
which  do  not  often  cause  either  sickness  or  pain,  but 
which  narrow  or  close  the  air  passages  and  keep  the 
person  from  getting  a  sufficient  supply  of  air.  These 
diseases  often  go  on  for  years  without  being  dis- 
covered, but  they  are  serious  and  should  be  promptly 
treated  when  found.  How  common  these  troubles 
are  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  415  villages  of  New 
York  State  it  was  found  that  nearly  one  eighth 
of  the  school  children  were  breathing  through  the 
mouth  instead  of  the  nose. 

The  evil  effect  of  breathing  through  the 
mouth.  Mouth  breathing  causes  the  upper  teeth 
to  turn  forward  and  the  lips  to  thicken  and  turn  out, 
thus  spoiling  the  appearance  of  the  face.  What  is 
more  serious,  it  allows  millions  of  bacteria  to  get 

59 


6o 


PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 


into  the  mouth,  and  it  allows  cold  and  dusty  air  to 
reach  the  throat  and  lungs.  Worst  of  all,  the  gen- 
eral health  of  the  mouth  breather  is  weakened. 

adenoids 


FIG.  37.     Adenoids  grow  high  in  the  throat  and  block  the 
openings  from  the  nose  into  the  throat. 

The  cause  of  mouth  breathing  is  usually  adenoid 
growths  or  enlarged  tonsils. 

Adenoids.  Examinations  have  shown  that  in 
moist  climates  as  many  as  one  sixth  of  all  the  chil- 
dren of  school  age  may  have  adenoids.  These  are 
soft,  spongy  bodies  that  grow  high  up  in  the  back 
of  the  throat  (Fig.  37).  Sometimes  they  fill  the 
whole  throat,  and  they  partly  or  entirely  close  the 
passages  from  the  nose  into  the  throat,  so  that  the 
person  must  breathe  through  the  mouth.  They  are 
often  the  cause  of  deafness  also.  The  usual  symp' 


ADENOIDS  AND  ENLARGED  TONSILS         6l 

toms  of  adenoids  are  breathing  through  the  mouth, 
a  narrow  upper  jaw  and  crowded  teeth,  thick  lips 
and  a  running  nose,  difficulty  in  talking,  inflamed 
eyes,  and  deafness.  In  most  cases  the  inner  corners 
of  the  eyes  are  drawn  down,  and  the  face  has  the 
strained  expression  that  you  see  on  the  faces  of  the 
children  in  Figure  36.  Many  children  who  have 
adenoid  growths  are  smaller  than  they  ought  to 
be,  some  of  them  have  difficulty  in  keeping  up  with 
their  classes,  and  sometimes  adenoids  have  the 
strange  effect  of  causing  the  child  to  be  restless,  idle, 
stupid,  quarrelsome,  and  a  general  mischief-maker. 

Enlarged  tonsils.  The  tonsils  are  located  one 
on  each  side  of  the  throat.  Sometimes  they  be- 
come infected  with  germs  and  so  swollen  that  they 
almost  close  the  opening  of  the  throat.  This  con- 
dition is  so  common  that  when  275,000  children  in 
the  New  York  City  schools  were  examined,  more 
than  one  fourth  of  them  were  found  to  have  enlarged 
tonsils.  Such  a  condition  of  the  tonsils  causes 
mouth  breathing,  and  the  germs  from  them  are  a 
continual  danger  to  the  voice,  the  lungs,  and  the 
digestive  organs. 

The  importance  of  treating  adenoids  and  en- 
larged tonsils.  Does  your  nose  become  stopped 
up  whenever  you  take  a  little  cold?  Do  the  other 
members  of  your  family  tell  you  that  you  sleep  with 
your  mouth  open  and  that  you  snore  in  your  sleep? 
Is  it  hard  for  you  to  keep  your  nose  clean?  Do  you 


62  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

talk  through  your  nose?  Are  you  troubled  with  ear- 
ache or  deafness?  Do  you  suffer  from  tonsillitis,  or  do 
you  have  any  other  of  the  symptoms  of  adenoids? 

If  you  are  troubled  in  any  of  these  ways,  ask 
your  parents  to  take  you  to  a  physician,  who  knows 
how,  by  an  operation,  to  remove  the  cause  of 
your  troubles.  Do  not  allow  any  one  to  persuade 
you  to  wait  until  you  outgrow  adenoids;  for  while 
you  may  outgrow  the  adenoids  themselves,  the  ugly 
shape  of  the  mouth  and  lips,  the  narrow  air  passages 
in  the  nose,  and  the  deafness  that  the  adenoids  cause 
will  remain  through  life.  Besides,  you  can  no  more 
get  fresh  air  through  a  closed  nose  than  through  a 
closed  window,  and  it  is  almost  as  hard  to  grow  into 
a  strong,  healthy  man  or  woman  while  you  are 
struggling  for  air  as  it  would  be  to  do  so  without 
sufficient  food. 

Questions  :  i.  How  does  mouth  breathing  change  the 
shape  of  the  mouth?  2.  What  are  the  worst  effects  of 
mouth  breathing?  3.  To  what  is  mouth  breathing  usually 
due?  4.  What  are  adenoids  and  where  do  they  grow?  5. 
What  are  some  of  the  results  of  adenoids?  6.  Where  are 
the  tonsils?  7.  What  are  some  of  the  results  of  enlarged 
tonsils?  8.  Why  should  adenoids  or  enlarged  tonsils  be 
removed  as  soon  as  they  are  found?  9.  Is  it  reasonable  to 
wait  to  outgrow  such  troubles? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Watch  pupils  for 
symptoms  of  adenoids  and  enlarged  tonsils.  Insist  that  the  pupils 
be  provided  with  handkerchiefs ;  for  the  habit  of  mouth  breathing 
may  be  started  by  allowing  the  nostrils  to  become  blocked  with 
mucus. 


CHAPTER  THIRTEEN 

THE  BLOOD  AND  THE  HEART 


FIG.  38.     The  heart. 

SUPPOSE  that  in  a  great  city  all  the  wagons  that 
deliver  groceries  and  milk,  and  all  the  carts  that 
haul  away  rubbish  and  garbage,  should  stop  running. 
The  grocery  stores  might  have  abundant  supplies  of 
food,  but  the  food  could  not  be  taken  to  those  who 
needed  it,  and  there  would  be  suffering  and  starva- 
tion throughout  the  city.  The  garbage  cans  would 
become  filled  to  overflowing,  and  so  much  waste 

63 


64  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

matter  would  collect  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  dispose  of  it.  The  very  life  of  the  city  depends 
on  having  some  way  of  carrying  food  to  every  part 
of  it  and  some  way  of  taking  away  the  wastes. 

Your  body  is  much  like  a  city.  Every  part  of  it 
must  have  food  and  oxygen  brought  to  it,  and  every 
part  must  have  its  wastes  carried  away,  or  it  cannot 
live.  We  are  now  to  study  how  this  work  is  done. 

The  blood.  The  blood  carries  everything  that 
is  to  be  moved  from  one  part  of  the  body  to  an- 
other. It  takes  up  the  food  which  passes  through 
the  wall  of  the  intestine  and  the  oxygen  that  comes 
in  from  the  lungs.  It  carries  these  all  through  the 
body,  and  supplies  them  to  the  muscles  and  the 
brain  and  the  other  body  parts.  It  also  takes  up 
the  wastes  of  all  the  organs  and  brings  them  to  the 
lungs  and  kidneys,  where  they  are  thrown  out  of 
the  body.  To  do  this  work,  the  blood  must  travel 
swiftly  through  the  body  night  and  day  as  long  as 
the  body  is  alive. 

The  heart.  Place  your  hand  on  the  left  side  of 
your  chest  and  you  can  feel  your  heart  beat.  Count 
how  often  it  beats  in  a  minute.  As  the  heart  beats 
it  pumps  the  blood  through  the  body.  Day  after 
day  and  year  after  year  it  must  work  to  keep  the 
blood  flowing  through  the  body. 

The  blood  vessels.  The  blood  vessels  are  hollow 
tubes  or  pipes.  There  are  two  great  sets  of  them 
connected  with  the  heart  and  running  everywhere 


THE  BLOOD  AND   THE  HEART  65 

through  the  body.  One  set  is  called  the  arteries. 
They  carry  the  blood  out  from  the  heart  to  every 
part  of  the  body.  The  other  set  of  blood  vessels  is 
called  the  veins.  It  is  their  work  to  collect  the  blood 
from  all  parts  of  the  body  and  bring  it  back  to  the 


FIG.  39.     Long  races,  where  the  runners  suffer  from  exhaustion 
and  collapse,  are  too  severe  for  boys.     (After  McKenzie.} 

heart.  Near  the  heart  the  blood  vessels  are  very 
large,  but  through  all  the  body  there  are  thousands 
of  little  blood  vessels,  so  small  and  so  close  together 
that  you  cannot  run  the  point  of  the  finest  needle 
into  your  flesh  without  breaking  many  of  them. 

Violent  exercise  injurious  to  the  heart.  Run 
up  and  down  stairs  two  or  three  times,  or  run  a 
hundred  yards  as  fast  as  you  can.  Then  notice 
your  heart  and  you  will  find  that  it  is  beating  much 
harder  and  perhaps  twice  as  fast  as  it  beats  when 
you  are  sitting  quietly  in  your  seat.  From  this  you 


66  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

can  imagine  how  enormously  the  work  of  the  heart 
is  increased  by  Marathon  races,  hard  bicycle  riding, 
football,  rapid  and  long-continued  skipping  of  the 
rope,  or  hour  after  hour  of  tennis  playing.  When 
the  heart  is  overworked,  it  often  becomes  enlarged 
and  diseased,  and  this  condition  is  found  so  often 
among  those  who  engage  in  hard  games  and  sports 
that  it  is  called  "athlete's  heart."  Young  persons 
are  especially  liable  to  have  their  hearts  injured  by 
very  severe  games  and  long  races.  They  should 
therefore  take  their  exercise  in  a  way  that  will  not 
put  too  great  a  strain  on  the  heart. 

The  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  heart.  Alcohol 
often  causes  the  heart  to  become  weakened;  and  in 
drinkers,  especially  beer  drinkers,  great  quantities 
of  fat  sometimes  gather  about  the  heart.  In  this 
condition  the  heart  cannot  do  its  work  properly; 
and  in  sicknesses  like  typhoid  fever  or  pneumonia, 
it  is  likely  to  fail.  Alcohol  often  causes  the  walls 
of  the  blood  vessels  to  become  hard  and  brittle. 
Strokes  of  paralysis  and  apoplexy  (which  are  caused 
by  the  bursting  of  a  blood  vessel  in  the  brain)  are 
far  more  common  among  drinkers  than  among 
those  who  do  not  use  alcohol. 

How  to  stop  bleeding  from  a  wound.  If  the 
blood  flows  from  a  wound  in  spurts,  the  cut  blood 
vessel  is  an  artery.  The  bleeding  can  be  stopped  by 
twisting  a  cord  or  a  knotted  handkerchief  above 
the  wound,  as  shown  in  Figure  40.  If  the  blood 


THE  BLOOD  AND  THE  HEART 


67 


flows  in  a  steady  stream,  the  cut  vessel  is  a  vein;  in 

this  case  the  bandage  should  be  placed  below  the 

wound.     The  injured  part  of  the  body  should  be 

kept  raised.      If   the   cut 

vessel  is  a  large  one,  it  is 

necessary   to  act   very 

quickly,   and  some   one 

should  press  on  the  part 

to  stop  the  bleeding  until 

the  bandage  can  be  made 

ready.    If  the  wound  is  on 

the  head  or  body,  a  thick 

cloth    should    be    pressed 

firmly  down  upon  it.    A 

physician  should  be  called 

as  quickly  as  possible. 

Bleeding  from  the  nose.  Bleeding  from  the 
nose  may  often  be  stopped  by  simply  pressing 
the  upper  lip  against  the  teeth,  or  against  a  small 
ball  of  paper  or  some  other  object  placed  between 
the  teeth  and  the  lip.  Bathing  the  neck  in  cold 
water  may  also  help  to  check  the  bleeding.  The 
head  should  be  held  erect  in  nose  bleeding,  so 
that  as  little  blood  as  possible  will  run  to  the  nose. 
Do  not  blow  the  nose,  for  this  will  often  start  the 
bleeding  afresh. 

Questions  :  i.  In  what  ways  is  the  body  like  a  city?  2. 
What  does  the  blood  do  in  the  body?  3.  Where  is  the 
heart?  4.  How  often  does  your  heart  beat  in  a  minute? 


FIG.    40.     Checking   bleeding 
from  a  wound. 


68  PRIMER    OF  HYGIENE 

5.  Why  does  the  body  live  only  so  long  as  the  heart  beats? 

6.  What  are  the  two  sets  of  blood  vessels  called?    7.   What 
do  the  arteries  do?    8.   What  do  the  veins  do?    9.  What 
effect  has  exercise  upon  the  heart?     10.   Name  some  forms 
of  exercise  that  put  a  great  strain  on  the  heart,     n.   What 
effect  has  alcohol  on  the  heart?     12.   On  the  blood  vessels? 

13.  Tell  how  to  stop  bleeding  from  a  cut  in  the  arm  or  leg. 

14.  From  a  cut  in  the  body  or  head.     15.   From  the  nose. 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  The  teacher  should 
constantly  present  to  the  class  the  ideal  of  a  body  that  is  always 
in  perfect  health.  Try  to  prevent  any  of  the  pupils  from  falling 
into  a  state  of  mind  that  accepts  ill  health,  aches,  and  pains  as 
"natural."  Usually  a  class  has  several  pupils  in  it  who,  barring 
infections,  will  grade  almost  one  hundred  per  cent  on  a  health 
basis.  The  hygienic  habits  of  such  children  are  usually  good,  and 
the  other  pupils  may  very  profitably  be  taught  to  look  to  these 
as  the  ones  in  the  room  who  are  grading  highest  in  the  art  of 
physical  living.  One  great  secret  of  this  art  is  the  avoidance  of 
excesses,  and  the  pupil  should  be  made  to  see  the  absolute  neces- 
sity of  bringing  his  judgment  and  will  power  into  plar  in  the 
regulation  of  his  own  life. 


CHAPTER  FOURTEEN 


THE  KIDNEYS 

EXAMINE  the  body  of  one  of  the  animals  that  hang 

in  a  meat  market  and  you  will  find  two  dark  red 

organs  fastened  to  the  back 

wall  of  the  body.    They  are 

beanTshapea,    and    lie   half 

buried  in  fat,  one  on  each 

side  of  the  backbone. 

What  are  these  organs? 
They  are  the  kidneys.  What 
do  they  do?  They  take 
wastes  out  of  the  blood. 
Is  their  work  important? 
Their  work  is  as  important 
as  the  work  of  any  other 
organ  of  the  body,  for  if  they 
fail  to  do  it  the  wastes  will 
poison  the  body  and  cause 
death.  \Ve  could  no  more 
get  along  without  kidneys 
than  we  could  get  along  without  our  digestive 
organs  or  our  lungs. 

How  the  kidneys  remove  the  body  wastes. 
A  large  blood  vessel  passes  into  each  kidney 
and  sends  branches  into  every  part  of  it.  As 
the  blood  passes  through  the  kidneys,  the  kid- 
neys purify  it  by  taking  the  wastes  out  of  it, 
just  as  the  lungs  purify  the  blood  by  taking  the 
carbon  dioxid  out  of  it.  The  wastes  from  the 

69 


FIG.  41.     The   kidneys    and 
the  bladder. 


70  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

kidneys  are  carried  to  the  bladder  by  a  duct  from 
each  kidney. 

Keeping  the  kidneys  in  health.  The  kidneys 
have  to  remove  the  body  wastes,  and  are  best  cared 
for  by  caring  for  the  whole  body.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  things  that  should  be  avoided  if  possi- 
ble. Among  the  things  that  are  especially  likely 
to  injure  the  kidneys  may  be  mentioned  heavy 
lifting,  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  indigestion,  eat- 
ing too  much  meat,  and  especially  the  drinking  of 
alcohol,  which  is  one  of  the  most  common  causes 
of  kidney  trouble. 

Questions :  i.  Where  are  the  kidneys  found  in  the  body? 
2.  What  is  their  function?  3.  Name  some  things  that  in- 
jure the  kidneys.  4.  What  effect  have  alcoholic  drinks  on 
the  kidneys? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  It  is  well  to  empha- 
size the  unity  of  the  body  and  the  necessity  of  taking  care  of  the 
general  health  for  the  sake  of  the  parts.  The  Wonderful  One- 
Boss  Shay 'may  be  read  to  the  class  and  the  application  of  the 
poem  to  the  human  body  made.  In  later  life  the  kidneys  and  the 
heart  are  in  very  many  cases  the  weak  parts,  and  such  habits 
of  life  ought  early  to  be  formed  that  these  organs  will  be  con- 
served as  much  as  possible. 


CHAPTER  FIFTEEN 

THE  SKIN 


FIG.  42.  Swimming  is  an  invigorating  way  to  take  a  bath.  It  is 
also  one  of  the  best  forms  of  exercise,  because  it  brings  into  play 
the  muscles  of  all  parts  of  the  body.  (After  Sorolla's  "  The  Swim- 
mers," in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art.} 

THE  living  parts  of  the  body  are  extremely  delicate 
and  tender,  and  if  they  were  exposed  to  hurts,  to 
drying,  and  to  disease  germs  they  could  not  live. 
We  therefore  have  over  the  whole  body  a  tough 
coat  which  protects  the  delicate  living  body  parts. 
The  inner  part  of  this  coat  is  alive,  but  the  part 
which  comes  in  contact  with  the  outside  world  is 
dead  and  keeps  falling  away  in  dry  scales. 

The  structure  of  the  skin.  The  skin  is  com- 
posed of  an  outer  layer  called  the  epidermis  and  an 
inner  layer  called  the  dermis.  The  epidermis  has  no 

71 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


hair 


epidermis 


blood  vessels  in  it,  but  its  inner  part  is  alive  and: 
keeps  growing  to  take  the  place  of  the  outer  part 
that  is  all  the  time  dying  and  falling  away.  Every- 
where in  the  skin  are  little  sweat  glands  that  pour 
out  the  sweat  on  the  surface  of  the  skin. 

The  skin  a  regulator  of  the  body  heat.    The 
temperature  of  the  healthy  body,  winter  and  sum- 

mer, is  about  98.6  degrees. 
It  remains  the  same  be- 
cause the  skin  regulates  the 
heat  of  the  body.  This 
it  does  in  two  ways.  When 
we  are  hot,  the  blood  vessels 
in  the  skin  open  up  and 
allow  the  blood  to  come  to 
the  outside  of  the  body, 
where  it  can  be  cooled. 
When  we  are  cold,  the  ves- 
sels in  the  skin  close  up 
and  keep  the  blood  in  the 
warm  inner  parts  of  the 
body.  Another  way  in 
which  the  skin  regulates 


dermis        sweat  gland 


FIG.  43.    A  section  of  the    the   heat   is    through    the 

:in,  highly  magnified. 


in  cooling  the  body  by  pouring  out  water  on  the 
skin.  If  the  sweat  glands  fail  to  work,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body  goes  too  high  and  we  have 
fever. 


THE  SKIN  73 

Wet  the  hand  and  hold  it  up  to  the  wind.  Do 
you  feel  your  hand  being  cooled  as  the  water  evap- 
orates from  it?  Or  pour  alcohol  or  gasoline  over 
the  hand  and  allow  it  to  dry  off.  Do  you  feel  that 
your  hand  isj  being  cooled?  Suppose  the  air  was  so 
moist  that  the  sweat  could  not  evaporate  from  the 
skin.  Would  it  cool  the  body  to  have  the  skin  wet 
with  sweat?  On  what  kind  of  day  do  we  suffer 
most  from  heat? 

The  hair.  The  hair  grows  from  the  epidermis, 
and  like  the  outer  layer  of  the  epidermis  the  hair  is 
dead.  It  contains  no  blood  vessels,  and  there  is  no 
sense  of  feeling  in  it.  The  growth  of  the  hair  is  at 
the  root.  The  hair  is  composed  of  the  same  ma- 
terial as  the  outer  layer  of  the  skin. 

Each  hair  stands  in  a  little  pocket  of  the  epidermis 
that  is  folded  down  deep  into  the  dermis.  Open- 
ing into  this  small  pocket  are  little  glands  that 
pour  out  oil  around  the  root  of  the  hair.  Brush 
your  hair  thoroughly  and  it  will  become  smooth 
and  glossy  from  the  oil  that  you  work  out  from 
around  the  roots.  Fine  hairs  are  found  all  over  the 
body,  and  the  oil  that  comes  from  the  glands  at 
the  roots  of  these  hairs  keeps  the  skin  from  becom- 
ing dry. 

The  care  of  the  hair.  In  the  care  of  the  hair 
nothing  is  so  important  as  thoroughly  brushing  it. 
This  brings  the  blood  into  the  scalp  and  spreads 
the  oil  along  the  hair.  The  hair  should  not  be  wet 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


every  time  it  is  combed,  for  the  oil  will  be  washed 
off,  making  the  hair  too  dry.  The  head  should  be 
washed  occasionally  with  good  soap  to  cleanse  the 
hair  and  remove  scales  and  dirt  from  the  scalp. 
Dandruff  is  caused  by  germs  growing  in  the  oil 
glands  and  in  the  little  pockets  about  the  hairs. 
One  person  can  get  this  disease  from  another,  and 


FIGS.  44  and  45.     Well  kept  finger  nails  and  finger  nails  that  have 
been  bitten  off. 

for  this  reason  public  combs  and  brushes  should 
not  be  used. 

The  nails  and  their  care.  A  nail  is  a  portion 
of  the  outer  layer  of  the  epidermis  that  is  very  much 
thickened  and  hardened.  Its  growth  is  at  the  base. 
When  a  nail  is  lost  a  new  one  will  grow  in  its  place 
if  the  bed  on  which  the  nail  rests  is  not  destroyed; 
but  if  this  bed  has  been  destroyed,  the  nail  will  not 
grow  again. 

The  nails  should  not  be  bitten  off,  nor  should  they 
be  trimmed  "to  the  quick,"  for  this  will  spoil  their 


THE  SKIN 


75 


shape  and  their  appearance.  They  should  be  al- 
lowed to  grow  long  enough  to  protect  the  ends  of 
the  fingers,  and  the  space  beneath  the  ends  of  the 
nails  should  be  kept  free  from  dirt.  This  is  more 


FIG.  46.  Showing  the  necessary  sanitary  fixtures  of  a  modern 
bathroom.  Note  especially  the  tooth  basin,  the  use  of  which 
keeps  germs  from  the  mouth  from  getting  into  the  wash  basin. 

a  question  of  common  cleanliness  than  it  is  of  health; 
although  it  is  a  fact  that  bacteria  multiply  in  the 
dirt  under  the  finger  nails,  and  inflammation  some- 
times is  started  in  the  skin  by  scratching  with  dirty 
finger  nails. 

Bathing.  "Tolerate  no  uncleanness  in  your 
body,  clothes,  or  habitation"  was  one  of  Benjamin 
Franklin's  rules  for  success,  and  few  men  have  un- 
derstood the  secrets  of  success  better  than  he.  Fin- 
ger nails  that  are  in  mourning,  greasy  hair,  soiled 


76  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

and  unbrushed  clothing,  unclean  teeth,  and  the 
lack  of  a  needed  bath  cause  a  person  to  be  disagree- 
able to  those  about  him.  Such  conditions  greatly 
hinder  usefulness  and  success. 

Cold  baths.  Those  who  take  a  daily  cold  bath 
do  not  catch  cold  so  easily  as  do  others,  and  many 
strong,  vigorous  persons  are  greatly  benefited  by 
this  practice.  Weak  and  sick  people,  however,  and 
especially  those  who  are  inclined  to  be  nervous, 
should  not  take  cold  baths  except  upon  the  advice 
of  a  physician.  The  safest  rule  to  follow  in  bathing 
is  to  use  lukewarm  water  unless  you  can  take  a 
cold  bath  with  pleasant  results. 

Questions:  i.  What  use  has  the  skin?  2.  Name  the 
layers  of  the  skin.  3.  What  do  the  sweat  glands  do?  4. 
What  is  the  temperature  of  the  healthy  body?  5.  Explain 
the  two  ways  of  regulating  the  heat  of  the  body.  6.  In 
what  does  a  hair  stand?  7.  Where  does  the  oil  for  the  hair 
come  from?  8.  Does  a  bird  have  oil  for  its  feathers?  9. 
Explain  how  brushing  benefits  the  hair.  10.  What  is  the 
cause  of  dandruff?  n.  How  can  a  person  catch  dandruff? 
12.  Why  is  it  important  to  keep  the  nails  clean?  13.  What 
was  Benjamin  Franklin's  rule  of  success  regarding  cleanli- 
ness? 14.  What  advantage  is  there  in  taking  cold  baths? 
15.  What  persons  need  to  be  careful  in  taking  cold  baths? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Discuss  with  the 
class  the  reasons  why  certain  persons  succeed  in  life  white  other 
persons  of  equal  ability  fail.  Bring  out  the  relations  of  health 
and  cleanliness  to  success.  A  general  truth  that  may  be  empha- 
sized is  that  a  chain  is  no  stronger  than  its  weakest  link  and  that 
two  or  three  strong  qualities  will  not  ordinarily  bring  success  if 
they  are  coupled  with  serious  weaknesses. 


CHAPTER  SIXTEEN 

CLOTHING 


FIGS.  47  and  48.    On  the  left  is  the  shoe  of  an  American  lady; 
on  the  right  the  shoe  of  a  Chinese  lady. 

CLOTHING  protects  the  body  from  injury  and  shields 
it  from  heat  and  cold  and  from  sun  and  rain.  Our 
personal  appearance  depends  to  a  great  extent  on 
the  clothing  that  we  wear,  and  it  is  right  that  we 
should  try  to  have  our  clothing  as  neat  and  as  be- 
coming to  us  as  is  possible.  We  should  not  forget, 
however,  that  the  real  use  of  clothing  is  to  protect 
the  body;  that  if  we  wear  clothes  that  are  uncom- 
fortable and  unsuited  to  the  weather  merely  because 
they  are  pretty,  we  are  as  foolish  as  we  should  be  if 
we  tried  to  live  on  peaches  because  they  are  more 
beautiful  than  bread  and  meat. 

Clothing  in  cold  weather.  Clothing  protects 
us  from  cold  by  keeping  the  heat  of  the  body  from 
passing  off  into  the  air.  Only  enough  clothing 
should  be  worn  to  keep  the  body  warm,  because 
heavy  clothing  overheats  the  body  and  interferes 
with  the  breathing  and  the  movement  of  the  blood, 

77 


78  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

Overcoats  and  wraps  should  be  worn  in  cold  weather, 
but  they  should  be  taken  off  when  we  come  indoors. 
If  this  is  not  done,  the  body  will  become  too  hot, 
the  blood  will  come  out  into  the  skin,  and  the  sweat 
glands  will  begin  working.  Then,  on  going  out  into 
the  cold,  the  body  is  too  suddenly  cooled  and  there 
is  danger  of  taking  cold. 

Wet  clothing  and  wet  feet.  Wet  clothing  takes 
the  heat  out  of  the  body,  and  we  should  not  allow 
the  body  to  be  chilled  by  letting  clothing  dry  on 
it.  Since  cold  and  wet  feet  very  commonly  bring 
on  colds,  wet  shoes  and  stockings  should  be  changed 
for  dry  ones  as  quickly  as  possible. 

Three  habits  that  will  be  of  great  value  in  saving 
you  from  colds  and  other  diseases  of  the  air  passages 
and  lungs  are  wearing  overshoes  when  your  feet  will 
become  damp  without  them,  carrying  an  umbrella 
when  there  is  danger  of  rain,  and  wearing  an  over- 
coat or  wrap  when  you  need  it. 

Changing  clothing  with  the  changes  of  the 
weather.  The  Chinese  seem  to  us  to  be  a  strange 
people,  but  when  we  examine  into  their  customs  we 
find  that  there  is  often  much  common-sense  in  the 
Chinese  way  of  doing  things.  These  shrewd  people 
speak  of  the  weather  as  one  shirt  weather,  two  shirt 
weather,  three  shirt  weather,  or  four  or  five  shirt 
weather,  according  as  the  weather  is  hot  or  cold. 
This  means  that  on  a  hot  day  a  Chinaman  puts 
on  one  thin  shirt,  and  the  cooler  the  weather  the 
more  shirts  he  puts  on. 


CLOTHING 


79 


FIGS.  49  and  50.     What  trouble  will 
the  shoe  at  the  right  cause? 


We  can  learn  a  great  deal  from  the  Chinese  about 
wearing  clothing  that  is  suited  to  the  weather.  An 
extra  undershirt  on  cool  days  in  the  spring  and  fall 
and  on  very  cold 
winter  day/s  would 
save  many  of  us  from 
colds  or  more  serious 
sickness.  Wearing 
cc  ol,  sensible  cloth- 
ing in  the  summer, 
instead  of  heavy 
woolen  garments, 
would  prevent  much 
of  the  suffering  and 
sickness  and  many  of  the  prostrations  that  come 
from  the  heat. 

A  little  baby  should  be  thinly  dressed  on  a  hot 
day  and  warmly  dressed  in  cold  weather,  and  its 
clothing  should  have  especial  attention  during 
changeable  weather  and  on  cool  nights.  Trying  to 
harden  children  by  having  them  go  barefooted  or 
with  little  clothing  in  cold  weather  is  a  mistake. 

Questions  :  i.  What  are  the  uses  of  clothing?  2.  W^hen 
should  overcoats  and  wraps  be  worn?  3.  Why  should  they 
be  removed  when,  we  are  indoors?  4.  Why  is  wet  clothing 
injurious  to  the  body?  5.  Mention  three  habits  that  would 
help  to  save  us  from  colds  and  other  sickness.  6.  How  do 
the  Chinese  describe  the  weather?  7.  What  may  we  learn 
from  the  Chinese  about  properly  clothing  ourselves? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Encourage  the 
pupils  to  apply  the  ideas  in  this  chapter. 


8o 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


FIG.  51.     The  muscles. 


CHAPTER  SEVENTEEN 


THE  CARRIAGE  OF  THE  BODY 

"STAND  up  and  be  a  man!"  A  wise  old  teacher 
often  said  this  to  the  boys  of  his  school.  It  is  good 
advice,  for  an  erect  carriage 
of  the  body  does  much  to 
make  and 'keep  one  strong. 
It  gives  the  heart  and  the 
lungs  room  to  do  their 
work,  and  it  allows  the  life- 
giving  blood  to  flow  freely 
through  all  the  body.  No 
one  who  allows  himself  to' 
stoop  so  that  his  lungs  and 
heart  are  crowded  together 
can  be  strong.  One  should 
"stand  up  and  be  a  man" 
if  he  wishes  to  have  a 
healthy  body. 

The  skeleton.  The 
skeleton  forms  the  frame- 
work of  the  body.  The 
backbone,  or  spinal  col- 
umn, runs  up  the  back  and 
carries  the  head  on  its  top. 
From  the  spinal  column  the  ribs  and  the  shoulders 
are  hung.  The  weight  of  all  the  upper  part  of 
the  body  falls  on  the  spinal  column,  and  if  this 
part  of  the  skeleton  bends,  the  whole  body  will  be 
stooped. 

81 


FIGS.  52  and  53.  If  the  spinal 
column  is  allowed  to  droop  the 
body  is  stooped.  If  the  spinal 
column  is  straightened  out  the 
body  is  held  erect.  (After 
McKenzie.) 


82 


PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 


The  muscles.  The  muscles  are  stretched  on 
the  framework  of  the  body.  Their  work  is  to  move 
the  body.  Lay  your  hand  on  your  arm  above  the 

elbow  and  bend  the  arm. 
You  feel  a  muscle  draw- 
ing itself  together  to  pull 
up  your  forearm.  Put  your 
hand  to  your  cheek  while 
you  close  your  teeth,  and 
you  feel  the  movements 
of  the  muscle  that  closes 
the  jaws.  All  over  the 
body  we  have  masses  of 
strong  muscles  that  slide 
smoothly  and  noiselessly 
over  each  other  and  move 
the  different  parts  of  the 
body. 

How  the  body  is  held 
erect  by  the  muscles  of 
the  spinal  column.  The 


FIG.  54.  Point  out  the  muscles 
that  support  the  spinal  column. 


body  is  held  erect  by  great  muscles  that  lie  along 
the  back  on  each  side  of  the  spinal  column.  The 
spinal  column  is  held  up  if  these  muscles  do  their 
work  properly,  but  if  they  are  weak  the  spinal 
column  bends  forward,  the  head  droops,  and  the 
ribs  drop  down  and  crowd  the  heart  and  lungs. 
No  one  can  straighten  himself  by  pushing  his  shoul- 
ders back,  for  the  shoulders  are  supported  by  the 


THE   CARRIAGE   OF  THE  BODY 


spinal  column  just  as  the   ears  are  supported  by 
the   head.     The   body  can   be  straightened  only   by 


FIGS.  55,  56,  and  57.  Standing  in  the  first  position  and  throwing 
all  the  weight  of  the  body  on  one  leg  twists  the  spinal  column. 
Standing  with  the  feet  even,  or  with  one  foot  only  slightly  in  ad- 
vance of  the  other,  keeps  the  spinal  column  straight.  (After  Mosher.) 

tightening  up  the  muscles  along  the  back  and  straighten- 
ing the  spinal  column. 

How  to  secure  a  correct  carriage  of  the  body. 
Stand  and  walk  with  the  top  of  your  head  pushed 
up  as  high  as  possible.  This  straightens  out 
the  spinal  column.  Pull  your  chin  in  and  push 
the  back  of  your  neck  against  your  collar.  Draw 
in  your  abdomen  and  do  not  allow  your  back  to 


84  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

bend  forward  at  the  waist.  Exercise  helps  to  de- 
velop the  muscles  that  hold  up  the  body,  but  no 
amount  of  exercise  can  give  one  an  erect  carriage. 
The  best  way  to  straighten  up  is  to  do  it. 

The  importance  of  holding  the  body  erect 
in  youth.  The  bones  of  a  little  child  are  easily 
bent,  and  by  beginning  in  time  they  may  be  made  to 
take  almost  any  form,  without  causing  much  pain 
to  the  child.  As  a  person  grows  older,  the  bones 
harden,  and  it  is  then  impossible  to  change  their 
shape.  If  you  want  to  have  a  straight,  beautiful 
body,  you  cannot  put  off  beginning  to  hold  yourself 
erect.  The  grown  man  or  woman  whose  bones  have 
hardened  in  a  stooped  position  can  never  straighten 
up,  but  must  go  through  life  with  cramped  heart 
and  lungs.  "Stand  up  and  be  a  man!" 

Questions:  i.  How  does  an  erect  carriage  help  the  body 
organs  to  do  their  work?  2.  What  is  the  function  of  the 
spinal  column?  3.  What  is  the  work  of  the  muscles  ? 
4.  How  is  the  body  held  erect?  5.  State  three  things  that 
must  be  done  in  order  to  have  a  correct  carriage.  6.  Why 
is  it  important  that  children  learn  to  carry  the  body 
properly? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Watch  the  pupils  for 
faulty  postures  and  privately  advise  with  them  as  to  the  best 
methods  of  correction.  Pay  special  attention  to  the  curve  of  the 
spinal  column  and  the  relative  height  of  the  shoulders.  See  that 
each  pupil  has  a  seat  and  a  desk  of  the  proper  height,  providing 
footrests  for  the  smallest  children  if  necessary.  Have  the  pupils 
trace  the  curve  of  the  spinal  column  in  Figure  59.  Show  how 
sitting  in  this  position  will  cause  the  head  to  be  thrust  forward 
•when  standing  and  walkine 


THE   CARRIAGE   OF  THE  BODY 


FIG.  58. 


FIG.  59. 


FIG.  60.  FIG.  61. 

In  Figure  58  the  seat  and  desk  are  of  such  a  height  that  the  feet  rest 
squarely  on  the  floor,  the  body  is  held  easily  erect,  and  the  shoul- 
ders are  even.  In  Figure  59  the  desk  is  too  high  and  too  far  away 
irom  the  seat.  In  Figure  60  the  desk  is  too  high,  causing  lateral 
curvature  of  the  spine  and  uneven  height  of  the  shoulders.  Figure  61 
shows  the  bending  over  caused  by  too  low  a  desk.  (After  Shaw.) 


CHAPTER  EIGHTEEN 

EXERCISE 


FIG.  62.  Outdoor  games  furnish  the  best  exercise  because  they 
bring  into  use  all  the  muscles  of  the  body,  they  take  the  mind  off 
its  tasks,  and  they  keep  us  out  in  the  fresh  air. 

EXERCISE  makes  the  muscles  strong,  it  quickens 
the  flow  of  the  blood,  it  improves  the  digestion, 
and  it  builds  up  the  general  health.  Like  food,  it 
is  good  for  us  and  ought  to  be  taken  every  day. 
Yet,  as  we  can  injure  ourselves  by  eating  more  food 
than  we  can  digest,  so  we  can  injure  the  body  by 
taking  too  much  or  too  violent  exercise  or  by  tak- 
ing it  at  the.  wrong  time.  In  this  chapter  we  shall 
study  how  to  take  exercise  so  that  we  shall  get  the 
most  good  from  it. 

The  open  air  the  best  place  to  exercise. 
The  best  place  to  exercise  is  in  the  open  air.  Then 
we  get  not  only  the  benefits  that  come  from  the  ex- 
ercise but  also  the  benefits  that  come  from  staying 
in  the  open  air.  In  cities  this  is  an  especially  im- 

86 


EXERCISE  87 

portant  point,  and  many  cities  are  now  providing 
open-air  playgrounds  for  the  children  of  their  crowded 
sections.  If  you  live  near  such  a  playground,  go  to 
it  as  often  as  you  can  and  take  your  little  brothers 
and  sisters  with  you,  for  outdoor  play  makes  strong 
muscles,  healthy  lungs,  rich  blood,  and  an  active 
brain. 

Exercise  and  the  digestion.  Nearly  every- 
body who  neglects  to  take  exercise  suffers  from 
indigestion  (page  32).  This  you  should  understand; 
for  if  you  become  too  lazy  or  too  careless  to  exercise 
your  muscles  you  can  look  forward  to  trouble  with 
your  stomach.  On  the  other  hand,  you  ought  not 
to  exercise  hard  immediately  before  eating,  and 
you  should  rest  a  while  after  eating,  or  the  diges- 
tive organs  will  not  get  the  blood  they  ought  to 
have  while  they  are  forming  the  digestive  juices. 
When  a  boy  is  hot  and  tired,  his  blood  is  in  the  skin, 
and  when  he  is  running  and  playing,  it  goes  to  his 
muscles  and  not  to  the  organs  that  are  digesting 
the  food. 

Some  rules  in  regard  to  exercise.  Exercise 
ought  to  be  taken  regularly.  A  reasonable  amount 
every  day  is  far  better  than  a  large  amount  one  day 
and  none  the  next.  Proper  exercise  brings  into  use 
and  builds  up  all  the  muscles.  It  does  not  make 
giants  of  a  few  muscles  and  leave  the  others  small 
and  weak.  Outdoor  games  are  best  of  all  for  de- 
veloping the  whole  body.  One  should  not  allow 


88 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


himself  to  cool  off  too  quickly  after  exercising,  as  there 
is  then  danger  of  taking  cold.  Do  not  sit  down 
without  a  coat  or  wrap  when  you  are  hot  and  tired, 
but  walk  about  until  you  have  become  cool. 

Over-exercising.  In  a  former  chapter  (page 
65)  we  have  spoken  of  the  danger  of  injuring  the 
heart  by  too  violent  and  long-continued  exercise. 


FIG.  63.  Children  exercising  in  a  schoolroom.  Even  in  a  crowded 
room,  and  without  any  apparatus,  very  beneficial  exercises  can  be 
given.  (After  McKenzie.) 

Such  exercise  is  not  good  for  any  part  of  the  body. 
Do  not  play  tennis  all  day.  Do  not  run  after  and 
kick  a  football  all  afternoon.  Do  not  ride  a  bicycle 
too  hard.  Do  not  play  baseball  or  exercise  in  a  gym- 
nasium until  you  are  so  tired  that  you  still  feel  it 
the  next  morning.  Be  moderate  and  sensible  in  your 
exercise  as  in  everything  else,  and  remember  that  if 
you  exercise  until  you  are  so  exhausted  that  you  can- 
not quickly  rest  afterwards  you  have  gone  too  far. 

Exercise   in   the   schoolroom.     After  one  has 
been  sitting  quietly  at  a  desk  for  an  hour  or  two, 


EXERCISE  89 

the  breathing  is  shallow,  the  muscles  are  tired  from 
remaining  a  long  time  in  one  position,  the  heart- 
beat is  slow,  and  the  brain  is  beginning  to  tire.  A 
person  in  this  condition  feels  sleepy  and  dull,  and 
he  can  learn  little  by  sitting  and  looking  at  his  book. 
If,  however,  he  will  stand  up  and  spend  a  few  min- 
utes in  stretching  and  breathing  exercises,  he  will 
find  himself  feeling  much  better.  The  breathing 
will  become  deeper,  the  heart  will  beat  more  rapidly 
and  with  more  force,  and  the  tired  muscles  will  feel 
rested.  The  brain  and  the  body  are  "waked  up," 
and  the  person  can  go  back  to  work,  feeling  greatly 
freshened  and  rested.  Several  times  a  day  every  one 
in  a  schoolroom  should  spend  a  little  time  in  such 
exercises  as  are  described  in  Chapter  Twenty-seven. 
While  this  is  being  done,  all  the  windows  should  be 
thrown  wide  open  and  the  fresh  outside  air  allowed 
to  fill  the  room. 

Questions  :  i.  What  are  some  of  the  benefits  of  exercis- 
ing? 2.  What  is  the  best  place  to  take  exercise?  3.  Why 
should  those  who  live  in  cities  make  use  of  the  parks  and 
open-air  playgrounds?  4.  Why  is  it  unwise  to  exercise 
immediately  before  or  after  a  meal?  5.  Give  three  good 
rules  in  regard  to  exercise.  6.  In  what  games  or  sports  do 
the  players  sometimes  injure  themselves  by  too  much  ex- 
ercise? 7.  What  is  the  best  way  to  rest  after  you  have 
become  tired  of  study? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  The  exercise  that 
pupils  take  during  play  hours.  The  wisdom  of  supplying  school 
and  municipal  playgrounds. 


CHAPTER  NINETEEN 

THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 

IF  an  army  had  no  officers,  and  each  soldier  marched 
as  he  pleased  and  camped  where  he  pleased,  we 
should  not  call  it  an  army  at  all,  but  a  mob;  and 
if  the  whole  army  attacked  the  enemy  without  plan 
or  purpose,  each  man  fighting  in  his  own  way,  we 
should  not  expect  it  to  win  many  victories.  If  an 
army  is  to  stand  before  an  enemy,  it  must  have  a 
general  over  it  who  will  keep  all  its  parts  working 
together. 

The  human  body  is  composed  of  many  organs, 
and  as  all  the  parts  of  an  army  must  be  made  to 
work  together,  so  must  all  the  organs  of  the  body 
be  made  to  work  together.  Over  all  the  body, 
therefore,  a  ruler  has  been  set  to  govern  the  organs 
and  to  make  them  do  their  work  when  it  needs 
to  be  done.  This  ruler  is  the  nervous  system.  It 
is  made  up  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  and  of 
the  nerves,  which  run  out  from  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

The  brain  and  the  spinal  cord.  The  center  of 
the  nervous  system  is  the  brain  and  the  spinal  cord. 
The  brain  is  enclosed  by  the  cranium  or  bones  of 
the  head.  The  spinal  cord  lies  in  a  canal  in  the 
spinal  column.  The  brain  and  the  cord  are  very- 
soft  and  delicate,  and  they  are  protected  by  the 
strong  bones  about  them. 

Nerves  and  their  work.     From  the  brain  and 

spinal  cord  the  nerves  run  out  and  branch  until 

90 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 


^brain 
spinal  cord 


nerves 


FIG.  64.    The  nervous  system.     From  the  brain  and  spinal  cord, 
nerves  run  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 


92  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

they  reach  every  muscle  and  the  smallest  parts  of 
every  organ.  The  work  of  the  nerves  is  to  carry  mes- 
sages between  the  brain  and  the  other  parts  of  the  body. 
If  you  stick  a  pin  into  your  ringer,  some  of  the  thou- 
sands of  nerves  that  end  in  the  skin  take  a  message 
to  the  brain.  You  then  know  that  the  ringer  was 
hurt.  If  you  wish  to  lift  your  hand,  your  brain 
sends  a  message  down  the  nerves  to  the  muscles  of 
your  arm  and  causes  them  to  move  the  hand.  So 
whenever  we  hear,  see,  taste,  smell,  or  feel,  or  when- 
ever we  move,  we  do  so  because  the  nerves  carry 
messages  either  to  or  from  the  brain. 

The  work  of  the  brain.  The  brain  is  the  great 
center  of  the  nervous  system.  It  governs  the  heart 
and  lungs.  It  gives  us  power  to  move  when  we 
wish  to  do  so.  It  makes  us  able  to  see  and  to  hear, 
to  think  and  to  feel,  to  know  and  to  understand. 
Without  the  brain  we  should  have  no  knowledge  of 
where  our  hands  and  feet  are,  we  could  feel  neither 
heat  nor  cold,  and  we  should  always  remain  in  one 
place  as  does  a  tree.  The  mind  of  man  has  made 
him  the  ruler  of  the  world,  but  without  the  brain 
the  mind  would  be  gone.  There  would  then  be  no 
joy  or  love  or  knowledge  in  us,  and  our  whole  ex- 
istence would  be  like  the  existence  of  a  stone. 

Questions  :  i.  Why  must  the  body  have  a  ruler  to  govern 
it?  2.  What  is  the  ruler  of  the  body  called?  3.  Name 
the  chief  parts  of  the  nervous  system.  4.  Where  is  the 
brain?  5.  Where  is  the  spinal  cord?  6.  How  are  the  brain 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  93 

and  spinal  cord  protected?  7.  What  is  the  work  of  the 
nerves?  8.  Explain  what  happens  in  the  nerves  when  you 
stick  a  pin  into  your  finger.  9.  When  you  wish  to  move  a 
part  of  the  body.  10.  Explain  the  work  of  the  brain,  n. 
What  would  life  be  like  without  a  brain? 

Suggestions  anjd  topics  for  development:  The  resemblance  of 
the  nervous  system  to  a  telephone  system.  Make  clear  the  fact 
that  the  brain  is  nourished  in  the  same  way  as  the  other  parts  oi 
the  body,  and  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  brain  food: 

The  chapter  on  Habit  either  in  James'  Psychology  for  Teacher* 
or  in  James'  Talks  to  Teachers  (both  published  by  Henry  Holt 
and  Company,  New  York)  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  changes 
brought  about  in  the  nervous  system  by  our  activities.  A  react- 
ing of  this  chapter  will  assist  the  teacher  in  getting  a  clear  idea 
of  the  nervous  system  and  its  workings.  A  point  that  is  worthy 
of  emphasis  is  that  the  primary  function  of  the  nervous  system 
is  to  drive  the  muscles  and  that  muscular  exercise  is  most  im- 
portant in  keeping  the  nervous  system  in  health. 

In  connection  with  the  teaching  of  the  following  chapters,  the 
teacher  should  bear  hi  mind  the  necessity  of  proper  conditions  for 
the  formation  of  correct  habits.  For  example,  many  cases  of 
drooping  carriage  of  the  head  are  due  to  near-sightedness;  and 
recently  it  has  been  stated  that  some  children  thrust  their  heads 
forward  on  account  of  annoyance  caused  by  the  rubbing  of  the 
clothing  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  that  in  these  cases  the  faulty 
carriage  can  be  corrected  by  cutting  the  garments  low  in  the  back. 
It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  conditions  in  which  children  live 
and  work  have  much  to  do  with  the  physical,  mental,  and  moral 
habits  that  they  form.  The  teacher  should  therefore  see  that,  as 
far  as  possible,  school  conditions  make  easy  the  formation  of  cor- 
rect habits. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY 

THE  CARE  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 


FIGS.  65,  66,  and  67.     Rest  and  quiet  recreation  build  up  tired 
nervous  systems. 

THE  nervous  system  is  the  ruler  of  all  the  body, 
and  if  it  is  not  kept  in  health  the  whole  body  must 
suffer.  To  keep  it  in  health  requires  good  food, 
pure  air,  exercise,  freedom  from  germ  diseases,  —  all 
the  things  that  are  needed  by  the  rest  of  the  body. 
There  are  also  a  few  special  points  in  regard  to  the 
care  of  the  nervous  system  that  it  is  well  to  know. 
In  this  chapter  we  shall  discuss  the  need  for  rest 
and  sleep,  and  the  injury  that  comes  to  the  nervous 
system  from  suffering  pain. 

The  necessity  for  rest.  No  people  have  ever 
worked  as  the  American  people  are  now  working. 
As  a  people,  we  hurry  on  from  day  to  day,  scarcely 
taking  time  to  eat  in  a  healthful  manner.  Even  our 
play  and  our  amusements  are  full  of  nervousness 
and  excitement,  and  many  of  our  people  hardly 
know  what  an  hour  of  quiet,  peaceful  rest  is. 

This  kind  of  life  is  not  healthful  either  for  the 
body  or  for  the  mind,  and  while  you  are  still  in  your 


94 


THE   CARE   OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM       95 

youth  you  should  form  the  habit  of  resting.  When 
you  become  tired  at  your  play,  lie  down  and  rest. 
If  you  have  a  hard  task  and  feel  wearied  after  you 
have  performed  it,  do  not  hurry  off  to  play,  but 
give  your  body  the  rest  it  needs.  If  you  have  a 
hard  lesson,  ^>ut  your  mind  on  it  and  study  while 
you  are  at  it;  but  if  you  find  that  your  mind  is  tired 
and  you  are  only  looking  at  your  book,  stop  and 


FIGS.  68  and  69.  A  proper  and  an  improper  position  for  sleeping. 
Too  high  a  pillow  bends  the  spinal  column  to  the  side,  interferes 
with  the  breathing,  and  disturbs  the  sleep. 

rest.  Get  up  and  open  the  window  and  take  a 
breathing  exercise,  while  you  think  of  something  else. 
Endeavor  to  keep  yourself  calm  and  quiet,  avoid 
fits  of  anger  or  great  excitement,  and  do  not  overdo 
at  your  play  or  at  your  work.  Learn  that  peace  and 
quietness  are  as  much  a  part  of  a  healthful,  useful 
life  as  the  bustle  and  excitement  in  which  some 
people  always  live.  Learn  to  rest,  and  you  will 
have  learned  something  that  will  do  much  toward 
keeping  your  nervous  system  in  health. 

The  necessity  for  sleep.     The  nervous  system 
needs  something  that  the  rest  of  the  body  does  not 


PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 


require,  and  that  is  sleep.  Without  sleep  we  cannot 
remain  in  health.  Young  babies  sleep  nearly  all 
the  time,  and  the  twelve  or  fourteen-year  old  boy  or 
girl  ought  to  have  nine  or  ten  hours  of  sleep  every 
night.  If  you  are  sleepy  at  getting  up  time,  go  to 
bed  earlier. 

In  this  connection  it  is  of  interest  to  know  that 

many  people  who  have 
tried  sleeping  outdoors  find 
that  they  need  about  an 
hour  less  sleep  each  night 
when  they  sleep  in  the 
open  air  than  when  they 
sleep  indoors.  The  ner- 
vous system  is  built  up  and 
restored  more  quickly  when 
we  breathe  pure  air  than 
when  we  breathe  impure 
air.  So  move  your  bed 
out  on  an  upper  porch,  or 
make  sure  that  you  have  plenty  of  fresh  air  in 
your  room  at  night. 

Pain.  The  suffering  of  pain  has  a  very  bad  effect 
on  the  nervous  system.  Ill  health  and  disease  bring 
on  old  age  faster  than  the  passing  of  the  years,  and 
one  reason  why  sickness  so  often  leaves  the  body 
weakened  and  aged  is  that  the  nervous  system  has 
been  wrecked  by  the  pain  that  it  has  borne.  A 


FIG.  70.  You  ought  to  wake 
up  in  the  morning  feeling 
fresh  and  rested. 


THE   CARE  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM       97 

week  of  toothache  or  of  earache  is  a  great  drain  on 
the  nervous  system.  A  corn  that  is  continually 
causing  pain  can  do  as  much  to  wear  out  your 
nervous  system  as  an  hour's  extra  work  each  day. 
Sometimes  we  learn  to  pay  little  attention  to  a  dull 
pain  and  allow  it  to  go  on  from  week  to  week,  but  it 
is  not  right  to  db  this.  Pain  is  nature's  danger  signal; 
it  is  a  call  for  help  from  some  part  of  the  body. 
Your  nervous  system  can  no  more  rest  when'  these 
calls  are  coming  to  it  night  and  day,  than  you  could 
rest  with  the  screams  of  some  one  who  is  calling  for 
help  constantly  coming  to  your  ears. 

Have  you  toothache?  Have  you  earache?  Have 
you  headaches?  Do  your  eyes  pain  you?  Do  your 
feet  hurt  you?  Have  you  pain  hi  any  other  part  of 
the  body?  If  so,  ask  your  parents  to  take  you  to  a 
dentist  or  to  a  physician.  For  you  ought  to  get  up 
in  the  morning  feeling  fresh  and  rested;  and  you 
ought  to  go  to  bed,  tired  and  sleepy  perhaps,  but 
free  from  pain. 

Questions :  i.  Mention  three  points  that  are  important 
in  the  care  of  the  nervous  system.  2.  Does  a  person  who 
works  quietly  and  rests  when  he  needs  it  do  any  less  work 
than  the  person  who  is  hurrying  all  the  time?  3.  How 
many  hours  of  sleep  ought  you  to  have?  4.  How  may  a 
person  know  if  he  is  getting  enough  sleep?  5.  What  should 
be  done  by  a  person  who  continues  to  suffer  pain?  6.  Why? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  How  a  vacation  may 
best  be  spent  to  fit  one  for  another  year's  work. 

7 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-ONE 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  HABIT 


FIGS.  71,  72,  and  73.  Keeping  the  teeth  clean,  breathing  pure  air, 
and  going  to  bed  regularly  at  an  early  hour  are  three  habits  that 
have  much  to  do  with  keeping  us  in  health. 

WHEN  the  nervous  system  has  done  a  thing  once,  it 
does  it  the  second  time  more  easily.  When  one  has 
performed  an  act  a  great  number  of  times,  one's 
nervous  system  becomes  so  trained  that  it  carries 
out  the  act  easily  and  quickly  and  often  without 
thought.  When  the  nervous  system  becomes  trained 
in  this  way,  we  say  that  we  have  formed  a  habit. 

Just  what  happens  in  the  nervous  system  when 
a  habit  is  formed  no  one  knows.  But  we  do  know 
that  in  the  movements  of  the  muscles,  in  the  train- 
ing of  the  mind,  and  in  the  building  of  the  charac- 
ter, nothing  has  so  great  an  influence  as  the  habits 
we  have  formed. 

Habits  and  health.     It   is   not   single  acts,   but 
habits,  that  destroy  the  health.    It  is  not  single  acts 
but  habits,  that  build  up  the  health. 

98 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  HABIT  99 

You  will  not  become  stooped  by  bending  over  a 
desk  one  day,  nor  will  you  become  straight  by  hold- 
ing yourself  erect  some  one  time  when  you  are 
walking  down  the  street.  Eating  your  dinner  hur- 
riedly one  day  and  rushing  back  to  school  will  not 
cause  dyspepsia^.nor  will  taking  time  to  eat  a  few 
meals  slowly  cure  it.  The  teeth  decay,  not  because 
we  leave  them  uncleaned  for  one  day,  but  because 
we  make  a  habit  of  leaving  them  uncleaned.  The 
nervous  system  is  injured,  not  by  staying  up  late  one 
evening,  but  by  the  habit  of  staying  up  late.  The 
race  for  health  is  a  long  one,  and  it  is  not  the  short 
excited  dash,  but  the  patient  plodding  onward  in  the 
right  course,  that  wins  it.  Habits  and  not  acts  are 
the  important  things  in  keeping  the  body  hi 
health. 

Seven  hygienic  habits  that  you  ought  to  form. 

1.  Keep  your  teeth  clean. 

2.  Eat  moderately  and  chew  your  food  thoroughly. 

3.  Breathe  pure  air  whenever  it  is  possible  to  do  so. 

4.  Go  to  bed  regularly  at  a  reasonable  hour. 

5.  Take  proper  exercise  and  hold  yourself  erect. 

6.  Learn  to  rest  and  to  keep  yourself  calm. 

7.  Guard  yourself,  so  far  as  you  can,  from  dis- 
ease germs. 

Form  these  seven  habits  and  they  will  do  more  than 
all  the  medicines  in  the  land  to  keep  you  in  health. 

Making  hygienic  habits  a  part  of  our  lives. 
Our  habits  become  a  part  of  our  way  of  living  and 


100  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

doing  things,  and  we  do  not  think  of  them  as  some- 
thing that  it  requires  extra  work  to  carry  out.  If 
you  will  form  the  habits  that  we  have  mentioned 
above,  you  will  soon  clean  your  teeth  as  a  matter 
of  course  and  wonder  how  any  one  can  feel  com- 
fortable without  doing  so.  You  will  find  yourself 
surprised  that  any  one  should  want  to  make  him- 
self sick  by  eating  too  much  or  by  swallowing  his 
food  without  chewing  it.  You  will  think  it  strange 
that  any  one  should  live  in  a  thick,  stuffy  atmos- 
phere when  there  is  pure  air  only  the  thickness  of 
a  window-pane  away.  You  will  feel  your  own  hard 
muscles  and  almost  pity  the  flabby-muscled  people 
whom  you  meet.  You  will  get  out  of  patience  with 
the  person  who  potters  around  when  he  ought  to  go 
to  bed;  and  you  will  be  amused  when  you  see  some 
one  get  excited  over  nothing  and  run  around  like  an 
ant  that  has  lost  its  way.  You  will  guard  yourself 
from  disease  germs  without  feeling  that  you  are 
taking  extra  trouble;  and  you  will  feel  sorry  for 
the  poor  persons  all  about  you  who  needlessly  suffer 
from  germ  diseases.  Put  into  practice  these  health 
habits,  and  see  if  after  a  little  while  it  is  any  special 
work  for  you  to  carry  them  out, 

Mental  habits.  As  we  form  habits  of  the  body, 
so  we  form  habits  of  the  mind.  And  as  it  is  the 
habits  and  not  the  single  acts  that  are  important 
to  the  body,  so  it  is  the  habits  that  are  important 
to  the  mind.  A  boy  does  not  fail  in  his  class  because 


THE  IMPORTANCE 


IOI 


he  misses  school  one  day,  and  he  cannot  pass  his 
examinations  with  a  high  mark  by  studying  his 
lessons  for  one  day.  It  is  the  steady 
work  day  by  day  that  gives  the  train- 
ing of  the  mind,  the  store  of  knowl- 
edge, and  the  habits  of  work  that 
enable  a  pupil  to  pass  up  from  grade 
to  grade  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 
Form  the  habit  of  studying  and. 
you  will  find  that  it  is  as  easy  to 
learn  your  lessons  as  it  is  to  fail  to 
learn  them. 

Youth  the  time  when  lasting 
habits  are  formed.  Two  or  three 
days  are  enough  to  form  or  break  a 
habit  hi  a  baby,  but  the  older  we 
become  the  harder  it  is  for  us  to 
break  old  habits  and  to  form  new 
ones.  Just  as  the  bones  harden  young  man  tied  this 
as  we  become  older,  with  whatever  ^ickforyMtree  /"  a 

knot.     Now  all  the 

shapes  they  had  in  youth,  so  the  men  in  the  world 
nervous  system  becomes  set  in  its  could  not  untie  u- 

...          ..  The  habits  that  we 

ways  of  doing  things  as  we  advance  form  in  youth  are 
in  years.  You  should  form  habits  knots  that  we  can- 

,i  .11  •        j-i       not   untie  in  later 

that  will  carry  you  on  in  the  years  (From  a 
road  to  health,  and  to  respected,  photograph  by 
truthful,  successful  manhood  and  M.a^  Ben  CUH~ 

mngham,      Mary- 
Womanhood.  Tennessee.) 


102  P&M&R  OF  HYGIENE 

The  habit  of  cheerfulness.  Cheerfulness  im- 
proves the  digestion,  quickens  the  blood,  and  gives 
tone  and  vigor  to  the  whole  body.  Care  and  dis- 
content have  exactly  the  opposite  effects.  It  is 
most  important,  therefore,  that  we  form  the  habit 
of  meeting  the  world  with  a  brave  heart;  that  we 
learn  to  appreciate  the  sunshine  of  life,  and  to  dis- 
miss vexatious  trifles  and  useless  worry  from  our 
minds.  The  poet  Browning  gave  us  both  a  beau- 
tiful song  and  a  splendid  philosophy  when  he  wrote: 

"The  year's  at  the  spring 
And  day's  at  the  morn; 
Morning's  at  seven; 
The  hill-side's  dewpearled; 
The  lark's  on  the  wing; 
The  snail's  on  the  thorn: 
God's  in  His  heaven  — 
All's  right  with  the  world." 

Questions  :  i.  What  do  we  mean  by  a  habit?  2.  How 
are  habits  formed?  3.  Is  it  as  easy  to  form  a  good  habit 
as  a  bad  habit?  4.  Name  some  habits  that  help  to  pre- 
serve the  health.  5.  How  can  one  make  these  a  part  of 
his  life?  6.  How  are  mental  habits  formed?  7.  Why 
should  we  form  good  habits  in  youth?  8.  What  is  meant 
by  the  old  saying,  "As  the  twig  is  bent  the  tree  is  in- 
clined "  ?  9.  By  the  saying,  "  You  can't  teach  an  old 
dog  new  tricks  "  ?  10.  Do  proverbs  of  this  kind  usually 
express  some  truth? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Have  the  pupils  ob- 
serve habits  that  they  have  formed  and  experiment  in  forming 
small  desirable  habits. 


CHAPTER  TWENXY-'EWp;  :- 

THE  EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  BODY 

THE  Eighteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  makes  it  unlawful  to  manufacture 
or  sell  intoxicating  drinks.  This  amendment  was  rati- 
fied because  the  people  had  come  to  understand  the 
evil  effects  of  alcohol.  It  is  well  to  keep  these  in  mind. 

As  we  have  studied  the  great  systems  of  organs 
that  do  the  work  of  the  body,  we  have  learned  that 
some  of  these  organs  are  injured  by  the  use  of  al- 
cohol. But  aside  from  the  damage  done  by  it  to 
separate  organs,  alcohol  has  far-reaching  effects 
upon  the  body  as  a  whole.  These  effects  are  more 
serious  than  the  damage  done  to  any  single  organ. 

Alcohol  not  a  brain  stimulant.  It  is  well 
known  that  alcohol  in  large  quantities  is  a  cause 
of  delirium  tremens,  paralysis,  and  insanity.  The 
effect  of  small  amounts  of  alcohol  on  the  nervous 
system  is  not  so  well  understood,  and  many  per- 
sons still  believe  that  a  glass  of  beer  or  wine  stim- 
ulates the  brain  and  increases  the  working  power  of 
the  mind  and  body.  This  idea  is  a  mistake.  Some 
typesetters  were  given  an  ounce  (two  tablespoon- 
fuls)  of  alcohol  on  certain  days,  and  a  record  was 
kept  of  their  work.  They  did  nearly  one  tenth  less 
work  and  made  one  fourth  more  mistakes  on  the 
days  when  they  used  alcohol  than  they  did  on  days 
when  they  had  no  alcohol,  and  the  effects  of  the 
alcohol  lasted  through  the  second  day.  A  man  who 
took  three  ounces  of  alcohol  each  day  for  twelve 


vO\V:     PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

days  could  add  figures  only  three  fifths  as  fast  as 
when  he  took  no  alcohol,  while  it  took  him  more 


2.3  weeks  of  sickness  a  year 
for  each  member  of  societies 
tbat  admit  drinkers 


6.5  deaths  for  each 
100  cases  of  sickness 
among  members  of 
societies  tbat  admit 
drinkers 


1.2  weeks  of  sick- 
ness a  year  for 
each  member  of  ab- 
stainers' societies 


3.5  deaths  for  each 
100  cases  of  sickness 
among  abstainers 


FIGS.  75  and  76.  Some  of  the  benefit  societies  in  Australia  take 
in  as  members  both  drinkers  and  non-drinkers,  while  others  admit 
only  those  who  do  not  drink.  The  short  line  in  the  left-hand  figure 
represents  the  average  amount  of  sickness  a  year  for  each  member 
of  the  abstainers'  societies,  and  the  long  line  represents  the  average 
amount  of  sickness  a  year  for  each  member  of  the  societies  that 
admit  both  drinkers  and  abstainers.  Of  the  members  of  the  ab- 
stainers' societies  who  were  attacked  by  sickness,  3.5  in  a  hundred 
died  (represented  by  the  short  line  of  the  right-hand  figure);  of 
the  members  of  the  other  societies  who  were  attacked  by  sickness, 
6.5  in  a  hundred  died  (represented  by  the  long  line  of  the  right-hand 
figure).1 

than  three  times  as  long  to  memorize  a  certain  num- 
ber of  lines  of  poetry.  These  facts  show  that  the 
power  to  do  mental  work  is  lessened  by  alcohol, 

1  From  statistics  compiled  by  Hon.  H.  Dillon  Gouge,  Public 
Actuary  of  South  Australia. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL   ON  THE   BOJ    105 

even  when  taken  in  small  amounts.  This  effect 
lasts  for  at  least  forty-eight  hours  after  a  medium 
dose,  and  for  this  reason  the  person  who  drinks  alco- 
hol daily  is  never  able  to  do  his  full  day's  work. 
Alcohol  is  not  a  brain  stimulant. 

The  resistance  of  the  body  to  the  germs  weak- 
ened by  alcohol.  Persons  who  use  alcohol  are 
more  easily  attacked  by  germ  diseases  than  are 
those  who  do  not  use  alcohol,  and  the  drinkers 
suffer  more  severely  when  they  are  attacked.  In 
pneumonia  the  death-rate  among  drinkers  is  nearly 
twice  as  high  as  it  is  among  non-drinkers,  and  in 
one  epidemic  of  cholera  in  Glasgow  the  death-rate 
among  the  alcohol  users  attacked  was  nearly  five 
times  as  high  as  it  was  among  the  sober  men  who 
took  the  disease.  Many  of  the  foremost  medical 
men  are  now  convinced  that  the  giving  of  alcohol 
to  a  patient  who  is  suffering  from  pneumonia, 
diphtheria,  cholera,  typhoid  fever,  or  other  germ 
disease  is  not  only  useless  but  positively  harmful. 

Alcohol  an  ally  of  tuberculosis.  In  1905  med- 
ical men  who  were  interested  in  the  study  of 
tuberculosis  met  in  a  convention  in  Paris,  to  dis- 
cuss means  for  preventing  the  spread  of  this  dis- 
ease. In  this  convention  the  following  resolution 
was  adopted:  "In  view  of  the  close  connection 
between  alcoholism  and  tuberculosis,  this  Congress 
strongly  emphasizes  the  necessity  and  importance  of 
combining  the  fight  against  tuberculosis  with  the 


106  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

struggle  against  alcohol."  These  men  believe  that 
the  use  of  alcohol  is  responsible  for  a  great  deal 
of  consumption,  and  they  are  able  to  give  good 
reasons  for  their  belief.1 

Alcohol  and  length  of  life.  The  records  of  life 
insurance  companies  show  that  out  of  the  same 
number  of  drinking  men  and  total  abstainer  there 
are  about  fourteen  deaths  of  drinking  men  for  every 
ten  among  abstainers.  The  number  of  drinking 
men  dying  between  fifty  and  sixty  years  of  age  is 
almost  three  times  as  great  as  the  number  of  teeto- 
talers. A  man  at  twenty  years  of  age  may  expect 
to  live  42.2  years  if  he  does  not  drink,  but  only 
15  years  if  he  uses  alcohol.  These  figures  show 
that  alcohol  very  considerably  shortens  the  life  of 
the  user. 

Other  effects  of  alcohol.  The  drunkard  is  not 
the  only  person  who  suffers  from  the  results  of 
his  habits.  A  vast  number  of  persons  live  in  need 
of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  because  the  money 
that  should  have  supplied  these  things  has  been 

1  In  comparing  death-rates  in  different  occupations  the  hours 
and  character  of  the  labor,  the  chances  of  infection,  the  amount  OT 
exposure,  the  age  of  the  workmen,  and  other  factors  must  be  taken 
into  consideration,  but  statistics  indicate  that  the  use  of  alcohol 
increases  the  amount  of  consumption  among  the  users.  For  ex- 
ample, American  statistics  (Census  of  1900)  show  that  the  death- 
rate  from  consumption  among  all  occupied  males  over  ten  years  of 
age  was  236.7,  among  brewers,  distillers,  and  rectifiers  was  256.8, 
among  saloon  and  restaurant  keepers  was  285.6,  and  among  clergy- 
men was  123.5.  English  statistics  (1899)  show  that  where  there 


THE  EFFECTS   OF  ALCOHOL   ON  THE  BODY     107 

spent  for  drink.  Among  such  persons  there  has  been 
an  untold  amount  of  disease  and  suffering  and 
wretchedness.  Drink  has  been  responsible  for  a 
vast  amount  of  crime.  Almost  one  third  of  all 
persons  supported  by  charity,  and  nearly  one  half  of 
all  homeless  and  friendless  children  in  children's 
homes,  have  owed  their  condition  to  some  one's 
intemperance.  "The  worst  feature  of  the  poverty 
caused  by  alcohol  is  not  the  fact  that  the  drunkard 
h,imself  suffers,  but  the  fact  that  innocent  persons 
suffer  far  more  than  he." 

What  employers  think  of  the  use  of  alcohol. 
Some  years  ago  6976  business  men  employing 
1,745,823  men  answered  inquiries  concerning  their 
employment  of  drinking  men.  Of  these,  5363  said 
they  preferred  men  who  were  known  to  be  abstainers, 
and  1613  said  they  made  no  effort  to  learn  the 
habits  of  their  men.  Long  before  the  prohibition 
amendment  was  passed,  most  of  the  great  railroads 
strictly  enforced  rules  against  drinking  while  on  duty, 
and  many  of  them  would  not  employ  a  drinking  man. 

Alcohol  and  the  war.  During  the  Great  War, 
the  principal  nations  of  the  world  passed  laws  to  limit 
or  prohibit  the  manufacture  and  use  of  alcohol. 
They  realized  that  they  could  not  fight  the  foreign 
enemy  so  effectively,  while  this  other  enemy,  alcohol, 
remained  unchecked  at  home. 

were  1000  deaths  among  all  occupied  males  there  were  1427  deaths 
among  an  equal  number  of  brewers. 


io8 


PRIMER    OF  HYGIENE 


What  medical  men  think  of  the  use  of  alco- 
hol. The  attitude  of  the  great  majority  of  medical 

men  has  been  so  well 
expressed  by  a  recent 
writer1  that  we  re- 
peat the  substance  of 
his  statement.  "So 
I  am  bound  to  be- 
lieve, on  the  evi- 
dence, that  if  you 
take  alcohol  habit- 
ually in  any  quantity 
whatever,  it  is  to 

"  The  Sprinter,"  by  Dr.  R.  Tail  McKenzie 

I?  TU     4.1.1  4.    i          4-1,  <    i    some  extent  a  men- 

FIG.  77.     The  athlete  knows  that  al- 
cohol and  tobacco  are  foes  to  speed,   ace    to    you.      I    am 
strength,  and  nervous  control.  bound  to  believe,  in 

the  light  of  what  science  has  revealed,  (i)  that  you 
are  threatening  the  physical  structure  of  your 
stomach,  your  liver,  your  kidneys,  your  heart,  your 
blood  vessels,  your  nerves,  your  brain ;  (2)  that  you 
are  unquestionably  lessening  your  power  to  work 
in  any  field,  be  it  physical,  intellectual,  or  artistic; 
(3)  that  you  are  in  some  measure  lowering  the  grade 
of  your  mind,  dulling  your  higher  sense,  and  taking 
the  edge  off  your  morals ;  (4)  that  you  are  distinctly 
lessening  your  chances  of  maintaining  your  health 

1  Dr.  Henry  Smith  Williams  in  Alcohol;  How  It  Affects  the  Indi- 
vidual, the  Community,  and  the  Race,  published  by  the  Century 
Company,  New  York.  This  book  gives  an  accurate  summary  of 
what  is  scientifically  known  of  the  effects  of  the  use  of  alcohol. 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL  ON  THE  BODY    109 

and  of  living  to  old  age;  (5)  that  you  are  adding 
yourself  to  the  number  of  those  whose  habits  cause 
more  suffering  and  misery,  disease  and  death,  than  do 
all  other  causes  combined."  To  these  conclusions  we 
might  add  (6)  that  you  are  fastening  upon  yourself 
a  habit  that  will  lead  many  business  men  to  refuse 
to  employ  you.1 

Questions  :  i.  What  are  some  of  the  effects  of  drunken- 
ness on  the  nervous  system?  2.  What  effects  have  small 
doses  of  alcohol  on  the  power  to  do  mental  work?  3.  How 
long  does  the  effect  of  a  single  dose  last?  4.  How  does  the 
use  of  alcohol  affect  the  resistance  of  the  body  to  germ 
diseases?  5.  To  tuberculosis?  6.  What  opinion  do  many 
physicians  hold  in  regard  to  the  use  of  alcohol  in  the  treat- 
ment of  germ  diseases?  7.  How  does  the  use  of  alcohol 
affect  length  of  life?  8.  How  does  the  use  of  alcohol  affect 
the  drunkard's  lamily?  9.  What  do  employers  think  of 
the  use  of  alcohol? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Make  clear  that 
Figures  75  and  76  are  not  comparisons  between  drinkers  and  ab- 
stainers, but  that  the  morbidity  and  mortality  rates  in  a  society  com- 
posed of  drinkers  only  would  be  higher  than  either  of  those  shown. 
Inquire  of  the  children  as  to  what  they  know  of  the  attitude  of  life 
insurance  companies  toward  moderate  drinkers. 

1  All  authors  are  agreed  that  the  use  of  alcohol  by  the  normal 
person  has  never  produced  any  good.  Small  amounts  may  be 
taken  even  for  a  long  time  without  producing  any  very  evident 
changes,  but  even  these  small  amounts  are  in  no  sense  to  be  looked 
upon  as  good.  The  well-proved  statement  that  a  single  glass  of 
beer  interferes  markedly  with  the  ability  to  think  and  the  ability 
to  work  is  quite  enough  argument  for  letting  alcohol,  in  any  form, 
alone.  —  DR.  MARTIN  H.  FISCHER. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-THREE 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  TOBACCO  ON  THE  BODY 

"LESS  harm  would  be  done  by  tobacco  if  it  were 
more  harmful."  This  sentence  tells  a  great  truth, 
and  it  explains  why  there  are  more  tobacco  users 
to-day  than  ever  before.  The  harm  that  tobacco 
does  is  not  felt  in  a  day  or  a  month,  and  many 
tobacco  users  are  unable  to  see  that  the  habit  is  in- 
juring them.  Many  other  persons  feel  that  they 
would  be  better  off  without  tobacco,  but  have  the 
habit  of  using  it  so  firmly  fixed  that  they  are  un- 
able to  break  it.  While  the  use  of  tobacco  has  wide- 
spread effects  upon  the  whole  body,  we  shall  study 
only  its  effects  upon  the  heart,  the  digestion,  and 
the  nervous  system. 

The  effect  of  tobacco  upon  the  heart.  To- 
bacco contains  a  poison  called  nicotin,  which  is 
highly  injurious  to  the  heart.  In  those  who  use 
tobacco  to  excess,  the  heart  beats  more  rapidly  than 
it  should,  while  the  force  of  its  beat  is  greatly  les- 
sened. When  the  habit  has  been  continued  for  a 
long  time,  the  heart's  action  sometimes  becomes 
very  irregular,  at  one  time  beating  too  rapidly,  at 
another  too  slowly,  and  occasionally  missing  a  beat 
altogether.  This  is  known  as  tobacco  heart.  While 
it  is  a  serious  condition,  it  usually  disappears  when 
the  use  of  tobacco  is  stopped. 

The  effect  of  tobacco  upon  the  digestive 
organs.  The  worst  effects  of  tobacco  upon  diges- 
tion are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  heart  is  weakened 

no 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  TOBACCO   ON  THE  BODY    III 

and  the  digestive  organs  do  not  get  a  sufficient 
supply  of  blood.  The  digestive  juices  are  lessened 
in  amount,  so  that  the  food  cannot  be  promptly 
digested.  This  trouble  comes  on  slowly,  and  often 
is  not  noticed  by  the  person  himself.  Even  when 
it  becomes  serious,  the  tobacco  user  often  believes 
that  his  indigestion  is  due  to  some  other  cause. 
When  such  a  person  gives  up  the  tobacco  habit,  he 
is  usually  surprised  to  find  that  there  is  great  im- 
provement in  his  powers  of  digestion  and  in  his 
general  health. 

The  effect  of  tobacco  upon  the  nervous  sys- 
tem. When  used  hi  moderate  amounts,  tobacco 
soothes  and  quiets  an  excited  or  worried  person, 
enabling  him  to  go  on  with  his  work  for  a  time. 
But  often  one  who  has  his  mind  cleared  of  worry  in 
this  way  forgets  the  importance  of  the  work  he  has 
to  do,  and  idles  away  his  time  instead  of  going  ear- 
nestly to  work  to  finish  his  task.  .When  used  in 
larger  amounts,  tobacco  makes  the  whole  nervous 
system  more  irritable.  The  brain  of  the  tobacco 
user  may  become  so  active  that  he  cannot  sleep. 
His  muscles  are  weak,  and  he  cannot  control  them,  his 
hands  tremble,  and  he  becomes  so  restless  that  it 
is  impossible  for  him  to  remain  quietly  at.  work. 

Tobacco  and  scholarship.  The  worst  effects 
of  tobacco  upon  the  nervous  system  are  its  effects 
upon  the  mind.  Wherever  smokers  and  non-smok- 
ers have  been  compared,  it  has  been  found  that 


112  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

non-smokers  are  much  better  students.  They  not 
only  prepare  their  lessons  more  easily  and  more 
quickly,  but  they  retain  what  they  have  learned 
longer  than  the  smokers.  Of  2336  smokers  in  the 
public  schools  of  one  city,  only  320  were  able  to 
keep  up  with  their  classes,  while  only  16  were  re- 
ported as  " bright "  or  "better  than  average"  stu- 
dents. Most  of  the  backward  boys  in  the  schools 
are  recruits  from  the  ranks  of  tobacco  users. 

Tobacco  a  nuisance.  Even  if  the  use  of  tobacco 
were  harmless,  it  would  still  be  a  nuisance  to  other 
people.  Yellow  fingers  and  stained  teeth  are  un- 
pleasant sights,  and  many  people  are  made  sick  by 
the  odor  of  tobacco  smoke.  No  one  has  a  right  to 
do  that  which  makes  his  neighbors  uncomfortable. 
No  one  has  a  right  to  do  that  which  will  injure  his 
own  body.  Tobacco  is  both  harmful  to  the  user 
and  annoying  to  others,  and  the  only  sensible  and 
right  thing  to  do  is  to  avoid  its  use. 

Questions  :  i.  Why  is  the  use  of  tobacco  on  the  increase? 
2.  Why  do  those  who  know  that  tobacco  is  injuring  them 
continue  its  use?  3.  What  are  the  effects  of  tobacco  upon 
the  heart?  4.  Can  this  condition  be  cured?  5.  In  what 
way  does  tobacco  interfere  with  digestion?  6.  What  effect 
have  small  amounts  of  tobacco  on  the  nervous  system?  7. 
Large  amounts?  8.  How  does  its  use  affect  scholarship? 
9.  Give  two  final  arguments  against  the  use  of  tobacco. 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  The  economic  side  of 
the  tobacco  question.  The  effect  of  tobacco  on  the  growth  and 
development  of  the  body. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-FOUR 

THE  EYES  AND  THEIR  CARE 


FIGS.  78  and  79.  In  writing  the  light  should  come  from  the  left 
side,  and  the  seat  and  desk  should  be  the  proper  height  to  make  it 
easy  to  keep  the  body  and  head  erect  and  the  shoulders  even.  In 
reading  the  light  should  come  from  the  side  so  that  it  will  shine  on 
the  book  and  not  into  the  eyes. 

WE  look  at  the  sky  at  night  and  see  it  studded  with 
stars.  Sometimes  we  see  the  round  moon  like  a 
great  quiet  mother  among  the  twinkling  stars.  We 
look  at  a  rose  and  we  see  its  beauty  and  the  richness 
of  its  color.  We  know  its  size  and  the  shape  of  its 
leaves. 

What  is  it  that  comes  from  the  stars  and  the  rose 
to  the  eye?  It  is  light.  What  does  the  light  do  in 
the  eye  that  causes  us  to  see?  It  starts  messages 
in  the  nerves  of  the  eye,  and  these  messages  are 
carried  to  the  brain.  What  do  we  learn  from  these 
messages?  We  learn  from  them  the  greater  part  of 


114 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


all  that  we  know  of  the  world  about  us.  To  get  an 
idea  of  the  importance  of  the  eyes  and  of  the  mes- 
sages that  come  from  them,  think  how  helpless  you 
would  be  if  you  had  no  eyes  to  guide  you;  how  little 
you  would  know  if  you  should  forget  all  that  you 
have  learned  through  their  use;  how  much  pleasure 

you  get  from  seeing  the 
world  about  you,  and 
how  dreadful  it  would 
seem  to  pass  your  life 
in  the  darkness  of  a 
long,  unlighted  night. 
How  the  eyes  are 
protected.  The  eyes 
are  protected  by  the 
eyelids,  eyelashes,  and 
eyebrows.  They  are 
bathed  and  washed  free  from  dust  by  the  tears. 
These  are  secreted  by  a  gland  in  the  outer  part  of 
the  upper  eyelid  and  drain  into  the  nose  through 
a  little  duct  from  the  inside  corner  of  the  eye. 

How  the  eyes  are  moved  about.  Each  eye  is 
moved  about  by  six  little  muscles.  In  a  person  who 
is  cross-eyed,  one  eye  is  weak  and  the  muscles  do 
not  move  it  with  the  other  eye.  Skilled  treatment 
in  the  very  early  years  of  life  will  usually  remedy  the 
defect  and  save  the  sight  of  the  eye. 

Near-sighted  and  far-sighted  persons.  Images 
or  pictures  of  the  things  that  we  see  are  formed  in 


nerve 


FIG.  80.  The  light  passes  back 
into  the  eye  and  starts  messages  in 
the  nerve  to  the  brain. 


THE  EYES  AND   THEIR  CARE  115 

the  back  of  the  eye,  just  as  an  image  is  formed  in 
the  camera  of  a  photographer.  It  is  these  images 
that  start  the  messages  along  the  nerves  from  the 
eye  to  the  brain.  From  these  messages  we  can  tell 
the  size,  form,  and  color  of  objects.  We  can  tell 
many  other  things  about  them,  such  as  whether 
they  are  rough  or  smooth  and  how  far  away  they 


FIG.  81.  The  muscles  that  move  the  eye.  When  you  read  with  a 
book  very  close  to  your  eyes,  as  you  do  when  you  bend  forward 
over  your  desk  and  rest  your  chin  on  the  book  you  are  reading,  you 
put  a  great  strain  on  the  muscles  that  turn  the  eyes  inward. 

are.  In  the  eyes  of  a  near-sighted  person  the  images 
of  near-by  objects  are  clear  and  distinct,  but  the 
images  of  distant  objects  are  blurred  and  indistinct. 
In  far-sighted  persons  the  images  of  distant  objects 
are  clear,  but  it  is  a  great  strain  on  the  eyes  to  see 
near-by  objects  clearly.  In  some  eyes  the  images 
are  always  confused,  and  it  is  not  possible  for  the 
person  to  see  objects  at  any  distance  clearly.  All 
these  troubles  can  be  corrected  and  the  images 


Il6  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

made  distinct  by  wearing  spectacles  that  are  prop- 
erly fitted  to  the  eyes.  A  person  who  holds  his 
book  less  than  twelve  inches  from  his  eyes  when  he 
is  reading  is  near-sighted  and  needs  glasses. 

The  importance  of  fitting  the  eyes  with  spec- 
tacles. If  the  images  that  are  formed  in  the  eyes 
are  not  clear  and  distinct,  the  eyes  will  always  give 
trouble.  Near-sighted  and  far-sighted  persons,  and 
others  who  do  not  see  clearly,  should,  therefore, 
have  spectacles  at  once.  Many  cases  of  nervous- 
ness disappear  as  if  by  magic  when  the  eyes  are 
fitted  with  glasses.  Many  persons  who  are  wretched 
from  indigestion  find  out  that  the  trouble  is  in  their 
eyes  and  not  in  their  stomachs,  and  that  their  health 
is  completely  restored  by  wearing  glasses.  Thou- 
sands of  people  are  suffering  from  blinding  head- 
aches, when  all  that  is  needed  to  save  them  from  this 
pain  is  a  pair  of  spectacles.  Even  the  muscles  are 
affected  by  the  eyes,  for  it  has  been  found  that 
when  boys  who  needed  glasses  began  to  wear  them 
they  became  much  faster  runners.  This  was  be- 
cause the  boys  were  suffering  from  eye-strain,  and 
their  nervous  systems  and  general  health  were  not 
in  good  condition,  although  the  boys  themselves 
had  never  realized  it. 

Eye  trouble  very  common  among  school  chil- 
dren. Of  432,000  school  children  who  were  ex- 
amined in  Massachusetts,  more  than  one  in  five  had 
defective  vision.  In  the  United  States  it  is  esti- 


THE  EYES  AND   THEIR  CARE 


117 


mated  that  there  are  5,000,000  school  children  who 
ought  to  be  wearing  glasses. 

Do  you  hold  a  book  close  to  your  eyes  when  you 
are  reading?  Are  you  falling  behind  in  your  school 
work  because  you  cannot  see  what  is  written  on  the 
blackboard?  Do  your 
eyes  smart  and  ache 
after  you  have  been 
studying  for  some  time? 
Are  they  red  and  in- 
flamed? Do  you  have 
headache  or  stomach 
trouble?  If  so,  try  to 
have  your  eyes  examined 
and  to  get  glasses  if  you 
need  them.  It  is  a  mis- 
take to  think  that  going 
without  glasses  will  help 
a  person  to  outgrow  eye 
trouble.  It  should  be  understood,  however,  that 
the  fitting  of  the  eye  with  glasses  is  a  skilled  task, 
and  that  it  is  a  mistake  to  buy  glasses  from  a  store 
or  to  go  for  them  to  any  one  who  is  not  an  expert  in 
correcting  the  defects  of  the  eye. 

The  importance  of  a  good  light  for  work.  The 
eyes  are  often  injured  by  working  in  a  poor  light. 
It  is  a  bad  plan  to  try  to  read  between  sundown 
and  dark,  as  one  may  not  notice  that  darkness  is 
coming  on  and  may  strain  the  eyes  without  know- 


FIG.  82.  This  boy  carries  his 
head  on  one  side  because  of  eye 
trouble.  He  needs  to  be  exam- 
ined by  some  one  who  is  skilled 
in  treating  the  defects  of  the 
eye.  (After  Gould.) 


Il8  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

ing  it.  Persons  often  carelessly  seat  themselves  too 
far  from  the  lamp  when  they  read.  Dark  school- 
rooms are  injuring  the  eyes  of  thousands  of  children. 
A  bright  light  shining  into  the  eyes  is  even  worse 
than  too  dim  a  light,  and  one  should  not  face  a 
window  or  a  lamp  when  reading  or  studying.  Light 
from  the  left  side  is  best  for  writing,  for  then  the 
shadow  of  the  hand  does  not  interfere  with  the 
work.  A  flickering  gas  light  should  not  be  used  for 
reading.  A  book  printed  on  shiny,  glazed  paper  is 
hard  on  the  eyes. 

Resting  the  eyes.  Using  the  eyes  in  close 
work,  such  as  reading,  embroidering,  or  sewing, 
causes  the  eyes  to  become  tired.  When  doing  such 
work  it  is  a  good  plan  to  close  the  eyes  for  a  few 
minutes  occasionally  or  to  look  out  of  a  window  in 
order  to  rest  the  eye  muscles;  or  one  may  rest  the 
whole  body  as  well  as  the  eyes  by  standing  up  and 
going  through  one  of  the  exercises  described  in 
Chapter  Twenty-seven.  Reading  while  lying  down, 
walking,  or  riding  in  a  street  car  or  train  quickly 
tires  the  eyes,  and  if  it  must  be  done  should  be  kept 
up  for  only  a  very  short  time.  Serious  eye  troubles 
are  apt  to  follow  measles  and  scarlet  fever,  and  the 
eyes  should  be  shielded  from  bright  light  and  rested 
during  these  diseases  and  during  recovery  from  them. 

Catching  diseases  of  the  eye.  There  are  a 
number  of  catching  diseases  of  the  eye  (often  called 
"pinkeye"  or  some  similar  name)  that  are  caused 


THE  EYES  AND   THEIR   CARE 


119 


by  germs.  The  germs  are  carried  from  one  person 
to  another  on  towels,  on  the  hands,  by  flies,  and  in 
other  ways.  These  diseases  often  leave  the  eyes 
weak  and  inflamed  for  life,  and  you  should  make 
every  effort  to  avoid  the  germs  that  cause  them. 

Do  not  wash  your  eyes  in  a  public  wash  basin 
or  wipe  them  on  a  public  towel.  Do  not  rub 
them  or  pick  at  them  with 
your  fingers.  Boracic  acid 
dissolved  in  water  (the  solu- 
tion is  not  too  strong  as 
long  as  it  is  all  dissolved) 
and  dropped  into  the  eyes 
once  or  twice  a  day  will 
often  help  to  kill  bacteria 
and  relieve  the  smarting 
and  burning  that  comes  from 
red  and  inflamed  eyes. 
Strong  eye  washes  and  eye  salves  should  not  be  used 
without  the  advice  of  a  physician. 

Foreign  bodies  in  the  eye.  When  a  particle 
of  dust  or  other  foreign  body  gets  into  the  eye,  the 
eye  should  not  be  rubbed.  Sometimes  the  body  can 
be  washed  out  with  clean  water;  or  if  the  upper  eye- 
lashes are  taken  between  the  finger  and  the  thumb 
and  the  eyelid  drawn  down  and  out,  the  position  of  the 
body  may  be  changed  until  it  can  easily  be  removed. 
Some  persons  are  skillful  enough  to  turn  the  eyelids 
wrong  side  out  and  wipe  the  particle  off  with  a  clotb 


/ 


FIG.  83.     Germs    often  get 
into  the  eyes  from  the  fingers. 


120  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

or  a  tuft  of  cotton.  When  this  is  done,  the  fingers, 
the  cloth,  and  everything  that  touches  the  eye  should 
be  absolutely  clean,  for  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  get  into 
the  eye  germs  that  will  cause  great  trouble.  Sharp 
pieces  of  metal  ought  to  be  removed  by  a  physician 
or  an  oculist  before  they  'cut  deep  into  the  eye  and 
start  inflammation. 

Questions :  i.  How  does  the  light  that  enters  our  eyes 
cause  us  to  see?  2.  How  are  the  eyes  protected?  3.  How 
are  they  cleansed?  4.  Where  do  the  tears  come  from?  5. 
Where  do  they  go  after  they  leave  the  eye?  6.  How  are 
the  eyes  moved?  7.  Of  what  advantage  is  this  to  us?  8. 
What  causes  a  person  to  be  cross-eyed?  9.  What  is  the 
trouble  with  the  images  in  the  eyes  of  a  near-sighted  per- 
son? 10.  How  may  these  difficulties  be  remedied?  n. 
Why  should  this  be  done?  12.  What  are  some  of  the 
symptoms  of  eye  trouble?  13.  Explain  what  kind  of  light 
is  needed  in  reading  and  studying,  and  how  the  light 
should  fall  on  the  page.  14.  How  may  the  eyes  be  rested? 
15.  How  do  germs  that  cause  diseases  of  the  eye  spread 
from  one  person  to  another?  16.  Tell  how  to  remove  a 
foreign  body  from  the  eye. 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  The  teacher  should 
test  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  in  the  room.  If  no  test  card  is  pro- 
vided by  the  school,  one  can  be  obtained  by  sending  ten  cents  in 
stamps  to  World  Book  Company,  Yonkers-on-Hudson,  New  York, 

Some  children  will  be  found  who  cannot  read  the  writing  on  the 
blackboard  from  the  back  of  the  room.  These  children  should 
be  placed  on  the  front  benches,  and  the  parents  should  be  pre- 
vailed on  to  provide  the  needed  glasses  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  teacher  should  also  look  to  the  proper  lighting  of  the  school- 
room, paying  special  attention  to  whether  parts  of  it  are  too  dark 
and  whether  the  children  are  seated  facing  the  light. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-FIVE 

THE  EARS  AND  THEIR  CARE 


inner  ear 


tympanic  > 
membrane 

middle  ear 

Eustachian  tube 


FIG.  84.    The  ear.    The  ear  is  composed  of  an  outer,  a  middle,  and 
an  inner  part. 

WHEN  you  throw  a  stone  into  water,  the  stone 
causes  waves  to  run  out  in  the  water.  When  you 
ring  a  bell,  the  bell  causes  waves  to  run  out  in  the 
air.  When  you  shout,  when  a  whistle  blows,  or  when 
a  bird  sings,  waves  are  made  to  run  through  the  air. 
When  these  waves  strike  the  ear,  you  hear  the  bell, 
the  shouting,  the  whistle,  or  the  singing  of  the  bird. 
If  the  air  waves  are  large,  the  sound  will  be  loud. 
If  the  air  waves  are  small,  the  sound  will  be  faint  hi 
your  ears. 

The  function  of  the  ear.  The  ear  collects  the 
sound  waves  and  makes  them  strike  on  the  ends  of 
the  nerves  of  hearing.  This  causes  the  nerves  of 


121 


122  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

hearing  to  carry  messages  to  the  brain,  and  when 
these  messages  arrive  in  the  brain  we  hear  the  sound. 
Certainly  nothing  in  the  world  is  more  wonderful 
than  the  human  ear,  for  it  changes  the  air  waves 
that  come  from  the  strings  of  a  violin  or  piano  into 
the  sweetest  music,  and  by  collecting  the  waves 
that  are  caused  by  the  voices  of  our  friends,  it 
brings  to  us  the  thoughts  that  they  wish  to  express 
to  .us. 

The  structure  of  the  ear.  The  ear  has  three 
divisions:  the  outer,  the  middle,  and  the  inner  ear. 
The  outer  ear  is  made  up  of  the  part  that  we  see 
and  a  canal  that  runs  down  into  the  head.  At  the 
bottom  of  this  canal  is  a  thin  delicate  membrane 
called  the  tympanic  membrane.  This  separates  the 
outer  and  the  middle  ear. 

The  middle  ear  is  a  little  cavity  in  the  bone  of  the 
skull.  It  is  filled  with  air,  and  frcm  it  a  little  tube 
runs  to  the  throat.  In  the  middle  ear  are  three 
small  bones  which  stretch  across  from  the  tympanic 
membrane  to  the  inner  ear.  The  inner  ear  is  filled 
with  liquid,  and  in  this  liquid  lie  the  endings  of  the 
nerve  of  hearing. 

How  we  hear  a  sound.  The  outer  ear  collects 
the  sound  waves  and  turns  them  down  the  canal 
to  strike  against  the  tympanic  membrane.  This 
sets  the  tympanic  membrane  to  swinging,  and  the 
membrane  puts  the  chain  of  little  bones  in  motion. 
The  motion  of  the  bones  disturbs  the  liquid  in  the 


THE  EARS  AND   THEIR  CARE  123 

inner  ear  and  causes  waves  in  it.  These  waves 
wash  over  the  ends  of  the  nerve  of  hearing  and  start 
messages  to  the  brain,  and  when ,  these  messages 
reach  the  brain  we  hear  the  sound. 

The  care  of  the  ear.  Practically  all  the  serious 
troubles  of  the  ear  come  from  germs  that  work  up 
the  tube  from  the  throat  into  the  middle  ear.  In 
Figure  26  you  can  see  that  the  openings  of  these 
tubes  are  high  up  in  the  throat,  where  the  matter 
that  falls  into  the  throat  from  the  nose  in  cases  of 
catarrh  passes  over  them  and  where  they  may  be 
pressed  upon  and  closed  by  adenoid  growths  (com- 
pare Figure  37).  Most  children  who  are  hard  of 
hearing  have  nose  or  throat  trouble,  and  most  older 
persons  who  are  deaf  suffered  from  these  troubles 
when  they  were  young. 

The  danger  from  running  ears.  A  running 
ear  means  that  there  are  germs  in  the  ear  that  are 
causing  inflammation  and  forming  the  same  kind  of 
matter  that  comes  from  boils  and  sores.  This 
trouble  ought  by  all  means  to  be  attended  to  at 
once,  for  in  a  running  ear  there  is  already  a  hole  in 
the  tympanic  membrane,  and  there  is  danger  that  this 
membrane  will  be  destroyed  or  that  the  chain  of 
bones  will  be  broken  down  and  incurable  deafness 
caused.  There  is  always  the  danger  also  that  the 
germs  will  work  through  to  the  brain,  which  lies 
close  above  the  ear,  and  cause  the  disease  that  is 
called  meningitis. 


124  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

A  running  ear  ought  to  be  treated  with  medicines 
that  will  kill  the  germs  in  it,  and  this  ought  to  be 
done  by  a  physician.  A  child  with  a  running  ear 
ought  also  to  be  examined  and  treated  for  the  nose 
or  throat  trouble  that  in  most  cases  has  caused 
the  ear  to  become  infected.  Plugs  of  cotton  should 
not  be  worn  in  the  ear,  for  they  do  damage;  the 


FIG.  85.    Testing  a  boy's  hearing  by  trying  how  far  he  can  hear  the 
ticking  of  a  watch. 

ears  ought  to  be  cured  so  that  the  cotton  will  not 
be  needed.  An  earache  may  sometimes  be  kept 
from  coming  on  at  night  by  wearing  a  cap  over  the 
ear  or  by  sleeping  on  a  hot-water  bottle,  and  a  doc- 
tor can  usually  give  something  that  will  stop  the 
pain  for  the  time. 

Do  you  suffer  from  earache?.  Have  you  a  running 
ear?  Are  you  hard  of  hearing  and  falling  behind 
in  your  school  work  because  you  cannot  hear  what 
is  said  in  the  school  room?  If  so,  try  to  have  your 
ears  examined  and  treated.  Do  not  let  any  one  tell 


THE  EARS  AND   THEIR   CARE  125 

you  that  you  will  probably  outgrow  your  trouble, 
for  most  of  the  people  who  are  hard  of  hearing  to-day 
are  in  that  condition  because  they  were  neglected  in 
childhood,  and  without  treatment  you  are  likely  to 
grow  into  a  life  of  deafness.  The  ears  were  made 
to  hear  with  and  not  to  rumble  and  roar  and  wreck 
the  nervous  system  with  pain,  and  you  should  try 
to  get  yours  to  serve  the  purpose  for  which  they 
were  intended.  A  physician  who  understands  the 
treatment  of  ear  troubles  will  not  tell  you  to.  wait 
and  let  them  get  well  of  themselves. 

Foreign  bodies  in  the  ear.  If  a  live  insect  gets 
into  the  ear,  it  can  be  drowned  and  the  buzzing 
stopped  by  pouring  water  or  oil  into  the  ear.  Only 
a  physician  should  try  to  take  anything  out  of  the 
ear,  for  there  is  always  danger  that  an  unskilled 
person  will  drive  the  object  through  the  tympanic 
membrane.  Sometimes  the  bitter  wax  which  is 
formed  in  the  canal  of  the  ear  blocks  it  up  and  in- 
terferes with  the  hearing.  It  should  be  removed  by 
a  physician. 

Questions  :  i.  How  is  sound  caused?  2.  Why  are  some 
sounds  loud  and  others  faint?  3.  What  is  the  function  of 
the  ear?  4.  Name  the  divisions  of  the  ear.  5.  What  is 
in  the  middle  ear?  6.  How  is  it  connected  with  the  throat? 
7.  What  is  found  in  the  inner  ear?  8.  Explain  what 
happens  in  the  ear  when  we  hear  a  sound.  9.  How  do 
germs  get  into  the  ear?  10.  Why  are  persons  who  have 
catarrh  or  adenoids  especially  liable  to  diseases  of  the  ear? 


126  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

ii.  What  is  the  cause  of  running  ears?  12.  Why  should  run- 
ning ears  never  be  neglected?  13.  What  should  be  done  when 
an  insect  gets  into  the  ear?  14.  Why  is  it  dangerous  for 
any  one  but  a  physician  to  try  to  remove  bodies  from  the 
ear? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  The  function  of  the  Eus- 
tachian  tube.  Why  a  cold  sometimes  causes  deafness.  The  teacher 
should  test  the  hearing  of  the  children  in  the  room.  Some  who  are 
hard  of  hearing  will  always  be  found,  and  these  ought  to  be  seated 
on  the  front  benches.  A  fairly  accurate  test  of  hearing  can  be  made 
with  'a  watch.  Watches  differ  in  the  loudness  of  the  tick,  and  a 
considerable  number  of  ears  should  be  tested  with  the  same  watch 
to  find  how  far  it  ought  to  be  heard.  In  making  the  test  a  quiet 
room  is  necessary  and  the  watch  should  always  be  held  in  the  same 
way.  To  make  a  test  of  hearing  have  the  child  sit  down,  close  his 
eyes,  and  cover  one  ear  with  his  hand.  Then  at  different  distances 
try  if  he  can  hear  the  ticking  of  the  watch.  Sometimes  hold  the 
watch  behind  your  back  or  muffle  it  with  the  hand  or  with  a  hand- 
kerchief when  the  child  thinks  that  it  is  being  held  up  for  him  to 
hear.  This  is  necessary  because  some  people  can  hardly  tell  the  dif- 
ference between  what  they  hear  and  what  they  imagine  they  hear. 
Both  ears  should  be  tested,  and  any  child  who  seems  hard  of  hearing 
should  be  examined  by  a  physician  who  understands  ear  troubles, 
It  is  stated  that  two  thirds  of  all  deafness  is  caused  by  adenoids,, 

If  wax  accumulates  in  the  ears  they  should  be  washed  out  occa- 
sionally with  warm  water.  Use  a  small  soft  rubber  syringe  which 
may  be  bought  of  any  druggist  at  small  cost. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-SIX 

ACCIDENTS 

IN  case  of  accident  in  the  country,  and  sometimes 
even  in  the  city,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  secure 
a  physician  until  considerable  time  has  passed. 
Every  one  therefore  should  understand  what  is  best 
to  be  done  in  some  of  the  more  common  accidents. 
When  one  is  called  on  to  use  this  knowledge,  he 
should  above  all  else  try  to  keep  a  cool  head  and  to 
act  promptly,  for  often  a  great  deal  depends  on 
doing  something  for  the  patient  at  once. 

Broken  bones.  If  a  broken  arm  or  leg  is  al- 
lowed to  be  bent  or  doubled,  there  is  danger  that 
the  ragged  ends  of  the  bones  will  cut  and  wound 
the  muscles,  blood  vessels,  and  nerves.  Keep  the 
limb  straightened  out  until  a  physician  arrives. 

Burning  clothing.  If  your  own  clothing  takes 
fire,  do  not  start  to  run.  Lie  down  and  wrap  your- 
self in  a  rug,  blanket,  or  coat,  or  roll  over  and  over 
to  put  out  the  flame.  Do  not  stand  up  so  that  the 
flame  will  come  up  about  your  face,  for  the  great 
danger  comes  from  breathing  in  the  flame.  If  an- 
other person's  clothing  takes  fire,  wrap  a  rug  or 
blanket  about  him,  and  throw  him  down.  Protect 
your  face  as  much  as  possible  while  doing  this,  and  if 
you  must  pass  through  a  burning  building  close  to  a 
flame,  hold  something  before  your  face.  Until  a 
physician  arrives,  burns  may  be  protected  from  the  air 
with  cloths  spread  with  vaseline  or  dipped  in  water 
that  contains  baking  soda. 

127 


*28  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

Fainting.  Lay  the  patient  flat  on  his  back  so 
that  the  blood  will  flow  easily  to  the  head.  Cold 
water  sprinkled  on  the  face  or  ammonia  held  under 
the  nose  will  help  to  restore  consciousness.  Fifteen 
drops  of  ammonia  given  in  a  third  of  a  glass  of 


FIGS.  86  and  87.  In  cases  of  apparent  drowning,  drain  the  water 
from  the  lungs,  as  shown  in  the  left-hand  figure.  Then  as  quickly 
as  possible  get  the  air  to  passing  into  and  out  of  the  lungs,  using 
the  method  shown  in  the  right-hand  figure. 

water  or  a  cup  of  strong  coffee  will  help  revive  the 
patient. 

Apparent  drowning.  Drain  the  water  from 
the  patient's  lungs  by  holding  him  for  a  few  seconds 
as  shown  in  Figure  86.  Then  quickly  lay  him  in 
the  position  shown  in  Figure  87  with  a  folded 
blanket  or  coat  under  his  chest.  Place  the  hands 
on  either  side  of  the  back  over  the  lower  ribs.  Throw 
the  weight  of  the  body  steadily  downward  on  the 
hands  and  drive  the  air  out  of  the  lungs.  Take  the 
pressure  off  the  body  without  lifting  the  hands  and 
allow  the  air  to  come  into  the  lungs.  Repeat  about 
fifteen  times  a  minute.  Keep  the  patient  as  warm 


ACCIDENTS  129 

as  possible.  The  artificial  breathing  should  be  kept 
up  for  an  hour  or  more  if  the  patient  does  not  re- 
vive sooner. 

Ivy  poisoning.  The  poison  in  poison  ivy  is  an  oil, 
and  it  may  be  dissolved  and  removed  from  the  skin 
by  a  vigorous  scrubbing  with  a  brush  and  hot  soap- 
suds. Laundry  soap  is  best  for  this  purpose,  because 
it  contains  more  of  the  alkali  which  removes  the  oil. 
In  case  the  oil  has  penetrated  the  skin  and  a  burn- 
ing sensation  is  felt,  the  affected  parts  should  be 
first  scrubbed  with  soap  and  then  bathed  in  a  mix- 
ture of  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  water.  The  al- 
cohol dissolves  the  oil  and  it  should  be  used  freely 
or  it  may  only  serve  to  spread  the  poison  over  a 
larger  surface.  If  further  treatment  is  needed  bath- 
ing with  a  hot  solution  of  potassium  permanganate 
is  very  helpful.  In  case  the  skin  is  at  all  broken,  a 
one  per  cent  solution  (a  scant  level  teaspoonful  of 
crystals  to  a  pint  of  water)  should  be  used,  but  if 
the  skin  is  unbroken  a  stronger  solution  is  advisable. 
Potassium  permanganate  is  a  poison  and  should  not 
be  used  more  than  a  few  times  without  consult- 
ing a  physician.  It  will  stain  the  skin,  but  the  stain 
is  not  permanent. 

Poisoning.  Bottles  that  contain  poisons  should 
not  be  kept  among  medicines,  and  it  is  well  to  paste 
on  these  bottles  strips  of  sandpaper,  so  that  they 
can  be  recognized  even  in  the  dark.  When  a  poison 
has  been  taken  by  accident,  a  physician  should  be 


130  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

called  as  quickly  as  possible.  In  the  meantime  the 
following  remedies  may  be  used: 

Carbolic  acid.  Use  alcohol  (whiskey,  brandy,  or 
rum  will  do),  oil,  or  milk. 

Bichlorid  of  mercury  (also  called  mercuric  chlorid 
and  corrosive  sublimate).  Give  milk  or  white  of 
egg.  Cause  vomiting  by  giving  a  tablespoonful  of 
mustard  in  a  glass  of  warm  water,  warm  salt  water, 
or  large  quantities  of  hot  water.  Tickle  the  throat 
with  a  feather  or  thrust  the  finger  into  the  throat 
to  bring  on  the  vomiting. 

Arsenic.  Cause  vomiting,  and  if  any  medicine 
that  contains  iron  is  at  hand,  give  it.  The  poison 
in  Fowler's  solution,  Paris  green,  and  Rough-on- 
Rats  is  arsenic. 

Opium,  laudanum,  nightshade,  and  Jimson  weed 
poisoning.  Give  strong  coffee  or  ammonia.  Keep 
the  patient  awake  by  walking  him  about,  slapping 
him,  or  throwing  cold  water  over  him  if  necessary, 
Cause  vomiting. 

Questions  :  i .  What  danger  must  be  guarded  against  when 
a  bone  of  one  of  the  limbs  is  broken?  2.  Tell  what  should 
be  done  in  case  the  clothing  takes  fire.  3.  In  case  of  faint- 
ing. 4.  How  should  you  treat  a  person  who  was  suffering 
from  apparent  drowning  or  gas  suffocation?  5.  What  should 
be  done  in  case  of  poisoning  with  the  more  common  poisons? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Show  the  class  how 
to  carry  on  artificial  respiration.  Write  to  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture at  Washington  for  a  bulletin  on  poisonous  plants;  teach  the 
children  to  know  and  to  avoid  the  poisonous  plants  of  the  region. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-SEVEN 

SOME  SIMPLE  EXERCISES  FOR  USE  IN  SCHOOLS 

IN  this  chapter  are  some  simple  exercises  that  may 
be  given  in  school  when  the  pupils  have  become 
tired  of  study  and  their  muscles  have  become 
cramped  from  sitting  for  some  time  in  their  seats. 
The  teacher  should  select  exercises  so  that  each  day 
the  muscles  of  the  whole  body  will  be  brought  into 
play,  and  the  school  should  be  trained  to  go  through 
them  hi  a  quiet,  orderly  manner,  so  that  little  time 
will  be  lost  from  the  lessons.  The  windows  should 
be  thrown  wide  open  before  beginning  the  exercises 
(page  49).  In  warm  weather  some  teachers  may 
prefer  to  give  the  exercises  outdoors. 

Position  while  exercising.  The  most  impor- 
tant point  is  to  hold  the  body  erect.  The  head 
should  be  stretched  up  as  high  as  possible,  as  though 
the  body  were  hanging  by  the  back  of  the  top  of 
the  head.  This  will  straighten  out  the  spinal  col- 
umn; hold  the  neck  straight  with  the  chin  close  to 
the  neck,  and  lift  the  ribs  up  off  the  lungs  (see  Fig- 
ure 53).  In  the  following  exercises,  whenever  the 
command  "Position!"  is  given,  it  means  that  the 
head  is  to  be  held  in  this  way,  with  the  hands  at  the 
sides.  The  position  for  resting  is  to  stand  with 
the  feet  even  and  wide  apart,  and  the  arms  crossed 
behind  the  back  and  resting  on  the  backs  of  the 
hips.1  The  trunk  and  head  should  be  held  erect  but 

1  If  preferred  the  position  shown  in  Figure  57  may  be  used 
in  resting. 


132 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


not -rigid  while  resting.    The  command  "In  place!" 
means   to   take   this   position,    and   the   command 
"Rest!"   means  to  remain  in  the  resting  position 
until  the  next  command  is  given.     The  command 
"In  place,  rest!"  should  be  given  after  each  exercise. 
Commands.    There  are  always  two  parts  in  the 
commands;   one  part  tells  what  to  do,  and  the  other 
part  tells  when  to  do  it.     In  the  com- 
mands   for    these    exercises    the   parts 
which    tell   when    to   do   a   thing  are 
printed  in  black  letters.     For  example, 
the  command,  "Hands  on  hips,  place," 
means  to  place  your  hands  on  your  hips 
when  the   teacher   says   "Place!'7     In 
some   of   the    exercises    the    complete 
commands  and  counting  have  not  been 
given.    The  teacher  will  easily  under- 
stand what  these  should  be  and  will 
give  them. 
A.    Arm  raisings. 

EXERCISE  i.  Arm  raisings  through  front  hori- 
zontals to  high  over  the  head  (Fig.  88). 

Raise  the  arms  high  over  the  head,  knuckles 
leading  (i.  e.  the  backs  of  the  hands  going  before 
the  palms),  through  a  front  horizontal  position. 
Keep  the  arms  and  fingers  stretched  out  stiff  and 
straight.  The  teacher  should  count  i  as  the  arms 
are  raised,  and  2  as  they  are  lowered.  Keep  the 
head  stretched  up. 


FIG.  88. 


SIMPLE  EXERCISES  FOR   USE  IN  SCHOOLS      133 


Command:  Position. 

Arm  raisings  through  front  horizontals  to  high  over 
the  heady  up  —  down. 

(Teacher  counts:) 

i,  2;   i,  2;   i,  2;   i,  2;   i,  2;   i,  2;  i,  2;   i,  2.1 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE   2.    Arm  raisings  through  front  hori- 
zontals to  high  over  the  head,  rising  on  the  toes. 

The  same  as  Exercise  i,but 
rise  on  the  toes  as  the  arms 
are  raised  and  bring  the  heels 
down  as  the  arms  descend. 

Command:  Position. 

Arm  raisings  through  front 
horizontals  to  high  over  the  head, 
rising  on  toes,  up  —  down. 


\ 


FIG.  89. 


I,  2; 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  3.  Arm  raisings 
through  side  horizontals  to  high  over  the  head 
(Fig.  89).  Directions  as  for  Exercise  i,  but  raise 
the  arms  through  a  side  horizontal  position,  bring- 
ing them  up  over  the  head  with  the  palms  forward, 
thumbs  touching.  Do  not  bend  the  arms  at  the  elbows. 

Command:  Position. 

Arm  raisings  through  side  horizontals  to  high  over 
the  head,  up  —  down. 

1  If  preferred,  the  teacher  may  count  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8. 


134 


PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 


I,  2;    I,  2;    I,  2;    I,  2J    I,  2J    I,  2;    I,  2J    I,  2. 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  4.  Arm  raisings  through  front  hori- 
zontals, descending  through  side  horizontals. 

Raise  the  arms  as  in  Exercise  i, 
and  bring  them  down  as  in  Exer- 
cise 3.    Vary  the  exercise  by  some- 
times rising  on  the  toes. 
Command:  Position. 
Arm  raisings  through  front  hori- 
zontals,   descending     through     side 
horizontals,  up —  down. 

i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2;  i,  2; 
i,  2;  i,  2. 

In  place,  rest. 
These  arm  exercises  can  be  varied  by  having  the 
pupils  go  through  them  with  either  the  right  or  left 
arm,  with  both  arms,  or  with  the  right  and  left  arms 
alternately. 

B.  Leg  exercises. 
I.    Leg  raisings. 

EXERCISE  5.  Leg  raising  to  front  horizontal 
(Fig.  90). 

The  leg  should  be  brought  forward  and  upward 
with  the  toe  pointed  down  to  bring  the  foot  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  a  straight  line  with  the  leg.  Do  not 
bend  the  leg  at  the  knee.  Head  and  trunk  erect; 
i.e." stand  tall." 

Command:  Position,  hands  on  hips,  place. 


SIMPLE  EXERCISES  FOR   USE  IN  SCHOOLS    135 

Leg  raising  to  front  horizontal,   right  leg,   up — 
down. 

I,  2;    I,  2;    I,  2;    I,  2;    I,  2J    I,  2J    I,  2J    I,  2. 

L£//  /eg,  up.1 

i,  2;  (repeat  eight  times.) 

7n  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  6.    Leg  raising  to  side  horizontal. 

Count  and  position  of  leg  and  foot  as  in  Exercise 
5,  but  raise  leg  to  the  side.  Do  not  let  the  body 
lean  over  to  the  side. 

Command:  Position,  hands  on  hips, 
place. 

Leg  raising  to  side  horizontal,  up  — 
down. 

EXERCISE  7.  Leg  raising  to  back  hori- 
zontal. 

Count  and  position  of  leg  and  foot 
as  in  Exercise  5,  but  raise  leg  to  the 
back. 

Command:  Position,  hands  on  hips,  place. 

Leg  raising  to  back  horizontal,  up  —  down. 

II.  Leg  flexions  (b endings). 

EXERCISE  8.  Leg  flexion  forward  (Fig.  91). 
Position  of  toe  as  in  Exercise  5.  Leg  from  knee 
down  should  be  vertical.  Raise  knee  toward  chin 
as  far  as  possible,  keeping  the  body  and  head  erect. 

1  This  command  should  be  given  instead  of  the  last  three 
counts  while  the  right  leg  is'  being  raised.  The  exercise  will  not 
then  be  stopped  while  the  command  is  being  given. 


136  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

Command:  Position. 
Hands  on  hips,  place. 
Leg  flexion  forward,  right  leg,  up  —  down. 
i,  2;  (repeat  eight  times.) 
Left  leg,  up  —  down. 
i,  2;  (repeat  eight  times.) 
In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  9.  Leg  flexion  backward. 
Count  and  position  of  foot  as  in  Exercise  5.    Bend 
the  leg  backward  at  the  knee.     Raise  the  foot  as 
high    as    possible,    keeping    the 
knees  close  together  and  even. 
Command:  Position. 
Hands  on  hips,  place. 
Leg  flexion  backward,  right  leg, 
up  —  down. 
III.   Squat. 

EXERCISE    10.     Half    squat,, 
with  arms  to  front  or  side  hori- 
FlG-  92-  z()ntals  (Fig.  92). 

Lower  the  body,  raising  the  heels,  bending 
only  at  the  knees  and  hips.  The  knees  should 
be  turned  out  so  that  they  will  be  in  a  straight 
line  with  the  toes.  As  the  body  descends,  raise 
the  arms  to  front  horizontal  (extended  straight 
out  in  front,  palms  down),  or  to  side  horizontal 
(extended  out  at  sides);  now  lower  the  arms  to 
the  sides  as  legs  are  straightened.  Head  and  trunk 
erect. 


SIMPLE  EXERCISES  FOR   USE  IN  SCHOOLS    137 

Command:  Position. 

Half  squat,  with  arms  front  (or  side)  horizontals, 
squat. 

i  (lower  body  and  raise  arms),  2  (lower  arms  and 
raise  body) ;  (repeat  eight  times.) 

In  place,  rest. 

C.  Body  flexions. 

EXERCISE  n.  Trunk  forward  flexion  (Fig.  93). 
Place  the  hands  on  the  hips,  and  bend  the  body  for- 
ward. Keep  the  legs  straight  at  the 
knees  and  the  head  in  a  straight  line 
with  the  trunk,  the  body  bending 
only  at  the  hips. 

The  count  for  body  movements 
should  be  slower  than  for  limb  move- 
ments. 

Command:  Position. 

Hands  on  hips,  place. 

Trunk  forward,  bend,  upward,  raise. 

i,  2;  (repeat  four  times.) 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  12.  Trunk  sidewise  flexion.  Position 
as  for  Exercise  n.  Do  not  let  the  head  bend  over 
toward  the  shoulders. 

Bend  alternately  to  the  right  and  to  the  left. 

Command:  Position. 

Hands  on  hips,  place. 

Trunk  sidewise,  bend,  upward,  raise. 

I,  2;  (repeat  four  times.) 


138  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  13.    Trunk  backward  flexion. 

Position  and  directions  as  for  Exercise  n.  Bend 
the  body  backward.  Do  not  let  the  legs  bend  at 
the  knees. 

Command:  Position. 

Hands  on  hips,  place.    . 

Trunk  backward,  bend,  upward,  stretch. 

i,  2;  (repeat  four  times.) 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  14.  Alternate  trunk  flexions.  Bena 
forward,  then  to  the  right,  then  to  the  left,  and  then 
backward. 

Command:  Position. 

Hands  on  hips,  place. 

Alternate  trunk  bendings,  bend. 

i,  2;  (bend  each  way  and  repeat  once.) 

In  place,  rest. 

The  exercises  in  bending  may  be  varied  by  clasp- 
ing the  hands  together  and  placing  them  on  top  of 
the  head  instead  of  on  the  hips. 

D.   Breathing  exercises. 

EXERCISE  15.  Breathing  exercise,  hands  at  sides. 
In  all  breathing  exercises  stand  tall  (page  83). 

Inhale  and  exhale  slowly  and  steadily  through 
the  nostrils.  Keep  the  head  and  body  erect  as 
the  air  is  exhaled.  At  the  command  inhale, 
take  in  a  full  breath,  and  hold  until  the  command 
exhale. 


SIMPLE  EXERCISES  FOR   USE  IN  SCHOOLS     139 

Command:  Position. 

Breathing  exercise  with  hands  at  sides,  inhale-^ 
exhale  (repeat  four  times). 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  16.    Breathing  exercise,  hands  on  ribs. 

Place  the  hands  over  the  lower  ribs,  and  as  the 
air  is  exhaled,  press  on  the  ribs  with  the  hands. 

Command:  Position,  hands  on  ribs,  place. 

Breathing  exercise,  hands  on  ribs,  inhale  —  ex- 
hale (repeat  four  times). 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  17.  Breathing  exercise,  arms  raised 
through  front  horizontals  high  over  the  head.  As 
the  air  is  inhaled,  slowly  raise  the  arms  as  in  Exer- 
cise i,  and  let  them  come  down  again  slowly  as  the 
air  is  exhaled.  Keep  the  arms  and  fingers  stretched 
-  out  straight  and  stiff. 

Command:  Position. 

Breathing  exercise,  arms  raised  through  front  hori- 
zontals to  high  over  the  head,  inhale  —  exhale 
(repeat  four  tunes). 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  18.  Breathing  exercise,  arms  raised 
through  side  horizontals  to  high  over  the  head.  Posi- 
tion and  movement  of  arms  as  in  Exercise  2.  Raise 
the  arms  as  the  air  is  inhaled  and  lower  them  as  the 
air  is  exhaled.  Head,  arms,  and  fingers  stretched  up. 

Command:  Position. 

Breathing  exercise,  arms  raised  through  side  hori- 


140  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

zontal  to  high  over  the  head,  inhale — exhale  (re- 
peat four  times). 

In  place,  rest. 

EXERCISE  19.  Breathing  exercise,  arms  raised 
through  front  horizontals  and  lowered  through  side 
horizontals.  The  same  as  Exercise  17,  but  move 
the  arms  as  in  Exercise  3. 

EXERCISE  20.  Breathing  exercise,  arms  raised 
through  front  horizontals  high  over  the  head,  rising 
on  toes.  The  same  as  Exercise  17,  but  rise  on  the 
toes  as  the  air  is  inhaled  and  slowly  bring  the  heels 
down  as  the  air  is  exhaled. 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  The  teacher  should 
understand  that  the  new  concept  of  education  has  as  its  goal  a 
realization  of  the  old  ideal  of  a  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body,  and 
that  the  school  and  the  teacher  are  now  expected  to  accept  the 
responsibility  for  the  physical  welfare  and  development  of  the 
child  as  definitely  as  they  accept  the  responsibility  for  his  mental 
training.  Time  taken  for  school  exercises,  for  securing  proper 
schoolroom  conditions  for  work,  and  for  following  up  the  hygienic 
habits  and  administering  to  the  hygienic  needs  of  the  pupils,  is 
spent  in  school  work  as  truly  as  is  the  time  devoted  to  reading 
and  arithmetic,  and  it  is  as  important  that  the  teacher  become 
expert  in  training  the  pupils  in  right  physical  living  as  it  is  for  her 
to  understand  the  best  methods  of  imparting  information  and  of 
developing  the  mental  powers. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-EIGHT 


FIG.  94.  Disease  germs  are 
so  small  that  they  can  be 
seen  only  through  a  powerful 
microscope. 


DISEASE  GERMS 

A  PERSON  who  lives  with  a 
consumptive  sometimes 
catches  consumption.  A 
man  takes  care  of  a  neigh- 
bor who  has  typhoid  fever, 
and  he  too  takes  typhoid 
fever.  A  child  brings  mea- 
sles or  whooping  cough  to 
school,  and  soon  great 
numbers  of  the  children 
have  the  same  disease. 

Why  are  some  diseases  "  catching  "?  What  is  there 
about  a  person  who  has  consumption,  typhoid  fever, 
or  measles  that  should  cause  another  person  to 
take  the  disease?  What  passes  from  a  sick  person 
that  causes  other  persons  to  become  sick,  and  how 
does  it  pass?  Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  the  answers 
to  these  questions. 

Catching  diseases  caused  by  germs  that  are 
passed  from  one  person  to  another.  All  catching 
diseases  are  caused  by  germs,  and  when  a  person 
catches  a  disease,  he  does  so  by  getting  germs  into 
his  body.  Every  case  of  smallpox  is  caused  by 
germs  that  come  from  some  other  case  of  smallpox. 
All  cases  of  measles  and  mumps  are  caused  by 
germs  that  come  from  other  cases  of  these  diseases. 
All  the  many  million  cases  of  catching  diseases  that 

are  found  in  our  country  each  year  are  caused  by 

141 


142 


PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 


germs  that  come  from  other  cases  of  these  diseases. 

Get  it  firmly  fixed  in  your  mind  that  the  germs 

that  make  us  sick  do  not  fall  from  the  clouds  or 

spring  up  from  the  earth,  but  come  from  the  people 

who  are  sick  with  germ  diseases. 

Disease  germs  very  small.     We  do  not  see  the 

germ  as  it  passes  from  the  person  who  gives  us 

grip  or  measles.  This  is  be- 
cause disease  germs  are  so 
very  small  that  we  can  see 
them  only  with  a  powerful 
microscope.  They  are  so 
tiny  that  millions  of  them 
can  swim  in  a  single  drop 
of  water.  Even  when  there 
are  hundreds  of  millions  of 
them  on  the  hands  or  on  a 

rotten  apple  is  packed  into  a    drinking  cup,  the  hands  or 

hole  in  a  sound  apple,  the  rot, 

which  is  a  catching  disease,    the  cup  may  yet  seem  to 
will  spread  through  the  whole   be  perfectly  clean.    We  can 

see    a    street    car   coming 

and  get  out  of  its  way,  but  germs  we  must  learn  to 
escape  without  seeing  them. 

Some  diseases  that  are  caused  by  germs. 
Among  the  diseases  that  are  caused  by  germs  are 
colds,  catarrh,  diphtheria,  pneumonia,  and  con- 
sumption; typhoid  fever,  dysentery,  cholera,  and 
all  the  diseases  of  the  intestine  from  which  so  many 
little  children  die;  boils,  carbuncles,  blood  poison- 


FIG.  95.    If  material  from  a 


DISEASE  GERMS  143 

ing,  tonsillitis,  appendicitis,  and  inflamed  sores  and 
wounds;  malaria,  lockjaw,  meningitis,  and  leprosy; 
whooping  cough,  scarlet  fever,  measles,  chicken 
pox,  smallpox,  and  mumps  —  all  these  and  many 
other  diseases  are  caused  by  germs.  From  reading 
this  list  you  can  easily  understand  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  sickness  that  is  in  the  world  would  dis- 
appear if  the  spread  of  disease  germs  from  one 
person  to  another  could  be  stopped. 

Questions  :  i.  How  does  one  person  catch  a  disease  from 
another  ?  2.  Where  do  the  germs  that  cause  typhoid  fever, 
diphtheria,  smallpox,  and  other  catching  diseases  come 
from?  3.  Why  do  we  not  see  disease  germs?  4.  Name 
some  diseases  that  are  caused  by  germs.  5.  Which  one  of 
these  diseases  have  you  had  ?  6.  Have  you  any  of  them 
now  ? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Find  out  how  many 
of  the  pupils'  homes  have  been  visited  by  some  serious  disease 
like  typhoid  fever  or  diphtheria,  and  in  how  many  cases  the  dis- 
ease has  been  allowed  to  spread  to  other  members  of  the  family. 
Drive  home  the  idea  that  disease  germs  are  organisms  as  definite 
as  cows  and  horses;  that  every  case  of  disease  caused  by  them 
is  due  to  taking  the  germs  into  the  body ;  and  that  when  one  mem- 
ber of  the  family  has  a  disease  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  other 
members  of  the  family  to  contract  it. 

Make  a  small,  deep  hole  in  the  side  of  an  apple  and  pack  into  it 
material  from  a  rotten  apple.  Lay  the  apple  aside  for  a  couple  of 
days  and  then  cut  it  open.  Show  the  class  how  the  rot  has  entered 
the  sound  flesh  of  the  apple. 

Send  to  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  at  the  state 
capital  for  bulletins,  which  will  be  found  to  contain  splendid  mate- 
rial for  supplementing  this  and  subsequent  lessons.  Distribute 
these  bulletins  to  parents  in  case  a  communicable  disease  appears 
in  your  school. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-NINE 

TYPHOID  FEVER 

WHEREVER  man  makes  his  home,  there  is  typhoid 
fever  found.  In  the  United  States  alone  it  attacks 
every  year  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  people, 
and  not  an  hour  passes  that  some  home  is  not  left 
in  sorrow  because  of  it.  Yet  the  cause  of  typhoid 
fever  is  well  known.  We  know  how  the  germs 
spread  and  how  to  prevent  the  disease.  It  is  not 
necessary  for  us  to  sit  idly  by  and  year  after  year 
see  it  pass  through  the  land  striking  down  those 
who  cross  its  path. 

The  typhoid  germ.  Typhoid  germs  leave  the 
body  in  the  wastes  from  the  intestines  and  kidneys 
and  sometimes  in  the  sweat.  They  can  live  for 
some  time  (probably  several  weeks)  in  water,  and 
it  is  thought  that  they  can  remain  alive  for  several 
months  in  the  soil.  They  can  live  frozen  in  ice  for 
weeks,  and  in  milk  and  some  cooked  foods  they 
are  able  not  only  to  live  but  to  grow  and  multiply. 
They  will  die  if  they  are  thoroughly  dried,  and 
they  can  be  killed  with  hot  water. 

How  typhoid  germs  are  scattered  about. 
Typhoid  germs  have  no  legs  to  walk  about  with  and 
no  wings  with  which  they  can  fly  through  the  air. 
Everywhere  they  go  they  must  be  carried,  but  they 
are  so  very  small  that  they  can  be  carried  about  in 
many  ways  that  we  do  not  think  of.  The  wastes 
from  a  typhoid  patient  may  be  thrown  out  on  the 

ground  and  the  germs  washed  into  a  stream.    Miles 

144 


TYPHOID  FEVER  145 

below  where  this  is  done,  people  may  use  the  water 
from  the  stream  and  thus  get  the  disease.  Flies 
may  walk  over  the  wastes  from  23g 
a  typhoid  patient  and  carry  on 
their  feet  thousands  of  the  germs 
to  food  or  to  dishes.  A  person 
who  is  suffering  with  a  light  at- 
tack of  the  disease  may  handle 
milk  and  cause  a  great  epidemic. 
Those  who  are  sick  with  typhoid 
fever  and  those  who  take  care  of 
typhoid  patients  are  almost  sure 
to  get  the  germs  on  their  hands. 
These  germs  may  then  get  into 
food;  they  may  be  left  on  pump 
handles  or  well  buckets,  on  door 
knobs  or  wash  basins.  In  any  of 
these  or  a  hundred  other  ways 
they  may  get  on  the  hands  and 
into  the  mouths  of  other  persons.  FIG.  96.  In  1906  Cin- 
Destroying  the  germs  that  cinnati  used  unfiltered 

water  from  the  Ohio 

come  from  those  who  have  River  and  had  239 
typhoid  fever.  Every  one  of  the  deaths  from  typhoid 
thousands  and  thousands  of  per-  ^  ^filte'fd,  aM 
sons  who  have  typhoid  fever  in  the  deaths  from  ty- 
our  country  every  year  is  sick  Phoid  fever  were  only 
because  he  has  swallowed  ty- 
phoid germs  that  have  come  from  some  other 
person.  To  check  the  spread  of  the  disease. 


146  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

therefore,  we  must  keep  the  germs  from  becoming 
scattered  about.  Every  case  of  typhoid  fever 
should  be  treated  in  the  same  way  that  a  case 
of  smallpox  or  of  diphtheria  is  treated.  No  one 
should  be  about  the  patient  except  those  who 
are  taking  care  of  him.  All  wastes  that  may 
contain  the  germs  should  be  carefully  destroyed 
(page  169).  No  flies  should  be  allowed  near  the 
patient,  for  they  may  carry  the  germs  about. 
Those  who  take  care  of  the  patient  should  wash  their 
hands  frequently  in  some  disinfectant  that  will 
kill  germs,  and  the  dishes  and  drinking  glasses  used 
in  the  sickroom  should  be  kept  by  themselves  and 
boiled.  The  bedclothes  should  be  changed  often 
and  boiled  as  soon  as  they  are  taken  from  the  bed, 
and  it  should  be  remembered  that  any  one  who 
touches  these  clothes  will  probably  get  germs  on 
his  hands.  It  is  only  by  keeping  the  germs  from 
typhoid  patients  from  becoming  scattered  about 
that  we  can  hope  to  stop  the  spread  of  the  disease 
Typhoid  germ  carriers.  When  a  typhoid  fever 
patient  gets  better,  he  should,  if  possible,  be  exam- 
ined to  see  that  he  is  free  from  germs  before  he  again 
lives  and  eats  with  other  members  of  the  family. 
This  is  important,  because  just  as  a  diphtheria  pa- 
tient often  has  the  germs  of  the  disease  in  his  throat 
for  several  weeks  or  months  after  he  is  well,  so  in 
some  cases  typhoid  fever  patients  carry  the  germs 
for  weeks,  months,  or  even  years  after  they  have 


TYPHOID  FEVER  147 

recovered  from  the  disease.  These  germ  carriers, 
because  they  are  going  about  everywhere  among 
other  people,  are  more  dangerous  than  are  those 
who  are  really  sick  with  the  disease,  and  many 
cases  of  typhoid  fever  have  been  traced  to  them. 


polluted  water..... 
impure  milk 
unclean  food— 
unwashed  bands— 

FIG.  97.  By  these  paths  typhoid  germs  reach  the  mouth.  In  the 
community  in  which  you  live,  how  couki  each  path  be  blocked? 

Protecting    ourselves    from    typhoid    germs. 

There  are  yet  many  cases  of  typhoid  fever  in  our 
country  hi  which  the  germs  are  not  destroyed,  and  it 
is  certain  that  we  have  many  germ  carriers  among 
us.  We  must  therefore  take  care  to  guard  ourselves 
from  typhoid  germs  that  have  become  scattered 
abroad.  These  germs  are  likely  to  reach  us  in 
water,  and  if  there  is  no  other  way  of  getting 
water  that  is  considered  safe  by  physicians,  we 
should  boil  our  drinking  water.  Typhoid  germs 
are  carried  about  by  flies,  and  houses  should  be 
screened  and  the  breeding  places  of  flies  removed 
(page  170).  Food  that  has  been  exposed  to  flies 


148  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

or  handled  by  the  public  is  unsafe,  and  infected 
milk  is  the  cause  of  a  great  many  cases  of  typhoid 
fever. 


FIG.  98.  In  hilly  and  rocky  regions,  wells  and  springs  may  be  in- 
fected by  germs  that  are  washed  for  long  distances  over  layers  of 
rock.  In  such  regions  the  well  should  be  on  higher  ground  than  any- 
thing about  the  place  that  may  pollute  it. 

In  general,  typhoid  germs  reach  us  from  the 
wastes  and  hands  of  typhoid  patients  and  germ 
carriers,  and  we  must  guard  the  paths  along  which 
the  germs  can  travel  to  us  from  these  persons. 
Persons  who  are  compelled  to  live  under  bad  sanitary 
conditions  or  who  are  caring  for  cases  of  typhoid 
fever  should  be  vaccinated  against  the  disease. 

The  germs  of  other  intestinal  diseases  spread 
in  the  same  ways  that  typhoid  germs  are 
spread.  Dysentery  (flux) ,  diarrhea,  and  cholera  in- 
fantum  (summer  complaint)  are  caused  by  germs,  and 
the  germs  of  all  these  diseases  are  spread  in  about  the 


TYPHOID  FEVER  149 

same  ways  that  typhoid  germs  are  spread.  Dysen- 
tery is  a  most  dangerous  disease,  and  cases  of  it 
should  be  carefully  looked  after  to  keep  the  germs 
from  reaching  other  persons.  The  intestinal  diseases 
from  which  so  many  young  children  die  in  hot 
weather  are  caused  to  a  great  extent  by  germs  taken 
in  impure  milk,  but  these  germs  can  also  be  carried 
by  water  or  by  flies.  A  little  baby  should  be  kept 
away  from  other  children  that  have  such  diseases. 

Questions:  i.  How  do  typhoid  germs  leave  the  body? 
2.  Are  typhoid  germs  hard  to  kill?  3.  What  are  some  of 
the  ways  in  which  they  may  be  scattered?  4.  What  can 
we  do  to  keep  the  disease  from  spreading?  5.  What  are 
some  of  the  ways  in  which  we  can  protect  ourselves  from 
typhoid  germs  ?  6.  What  other  disease  germs  are  spread  in 
the  same  way  as  typhoid  germs  ? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Discuss  with  the 
class  the  Rules  for  the  Care  of  Typhoid  Patients  issued  by  your 
City  or  State  Board  of  Health.  Find  out  the  chief  sources  of 
infection  in  your  community  and  discuss  methods  of  avoiding 
infection.  Teachers  who  live  in  rural  communities  should  show 
how  wells  and  springs  are  often  infected  by  washing  clothes  where 
the  drainage  reaches  them  or  by  the  hands  of  some  one  who  is 
taking  care  of  a  typhoid  patient.  By  multiplying  the  number  of 
typhoid  deaths  in  your  city  or  state  by  8  or  9,  the  approximate 
number  of  cases  of  the  disease  will  be  obtained.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  direct  cost  of  the  average  case  in  loss  of  time  and  medical 
fees  is  $240. 

Almost  every  State  Board  of  Health  issues  posters  and  bulletins 
on  typhoid  fever  and  intestinal  diseases.  Obtain  copies  of  these 
for  the  children  in  the  class  from  the  Board,  and  discuss  the  facts 
brought  out  in  them.  Encourage  the  children  to  be  on  the  watch 
for  conditions  in  the  community  which  may  lead  to  infection  of 
the  water  supply  of  families  or  of  the  school. 


CHAPTER  THIRTY 

TUBERCULOSIS   (CONSUMPTION) 


FIG.  99.  An  open-air  school  for  children  who  have  tuberculosis. 
Most  of  the  children  in  these  schools  improve  in  health  at  once. 
(After  a  photograph  in  The  Survey,  March  5,  1910.) 

TUBERCULOSIS  has  spread  itself  through  the  whole 
world.  In  the  warm  tropics  the  people  fall  before 
it,  and  in  the  frost-bound  regions  of  the  earth  it  is 
well  known.  It  finds  its  way  into  the  mansions  of 
the  rich  and  it  enters  the  cottages  of  the  poor.  It 
causes  the  death  of  one  seventh  of  the  human  race, 
and  in  our  own  country  one  person  in  every  ten 
dies  of  it.  The  germ  that  causes  this  disease  may 
grow  almost  anywhere  in  the  body,  and  we  may 
have  tuberculosis  of  the  bones,  of  the  kidneys,  of 
the  intestines,  or  of  any  other  part  of  the  body.  By 
far  the  most  common  form  of  the  disease,  however, 

ISO 


TUBERCULOSIS  151 

is  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs,  or  consumption.  This 
disease  has  long  been  called  the  Great  White  Plague, 
and  the  germ  that  causes  it  has  been  well  named 
the  Captain  of  the  Men  of  Death. 

Tuberculosis  an  expensive  disease.  Con- 
sumption is  a  long,  lingering  disease,  and  it  often 
attacks  people  at  the  time  of  life  when  they  are 
earning  a  living  not  only  for  themselves  but  for 
others  as  well.  For  these  two  reasons  it  is  one  of 
the  greatest  of  all  causes  of  poverty.1  Exactly  how 
much  this  disease  costs  our  country  in  money  it  is 
not  possible  to  say,  but  one  estimate  places  the 
figure  at  a  billion  dollars  a  year. 

The  germ  of  tuberculosis.  The  germ  of  tu- 
berculosis withstands  drying  longer  than  most 
germs,  and  in  a  damp  or  dark  house  it  sometimes 
remains  alive  for  months.  It  attacks  many  animals 
as  well  as  man,  and  cattle  especially  suffer  from  this 
disease.  It  grows  slowly,  and  usually  the  germ  has 
been  in  the  body  for  months  before  the  disease 
shows  itself.  It  gets  into  the  body  either  by  being 
breathed  into  the  lungs  or  by  being  swallowed  and 
carried  through  the  body  in  the  blood. 

1  In  the  city  of  Washington  it  was  found  that  about  one  half  of 
all  the  poverty  in  the  city  was  due  to  sickness,  and  that  as  a  cause 
of  poverty  consumption  was  far  more  important  than  any  other 
disease.  Every  day  in  the  United  States  tuberculosis  makes  orphans 
of  over  two  hundred  children  under  twelve  years  of  age,  and  it  has 
been  found  that  out  of  every  ten  children  in  the  county  homes  for 
children  in  Indiana,  four  are  there  because  one  or  both  parents  have 
•died  or  have  become  unable  to  work  because  of  consumption. 


152 


PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 


Early  treatment 


Late  treatment 


I 


Tuberculosis  germs  spread  from  consumptives 
and  in  milk.  Tuberculosis  germs  do  not  grow  in 
the  fields  and  pastures.  They  are  not 
found  in  the  rain  or  on  the  leaves  of 
the  trees.  They  come  from  the  people 
and  from  the  cattle  that  have  tuber- 
culosis, and  they  get  into  our  bodies 
by  way  of  the  mouth  or  the  nose. 
This  means  that  if  we  are  to  check 
the  disease  we  must  keep  the  germs 
from  spreading  from  the  people  and 
the  cattle  that  are  carrying  them. 
How  tuberculosis  germs  are 

FIG.  ioo.  Of  con-  .  . 

sumptives  who  spread  from  consumptives.  Mil- 
begin  treatment  HOns  of  germs  are  coughed  up  in  a 
early  in  the  dis-  d  b  consumptive  and  they  are 

ease,  76  m  ioo  re-          ->      J  *  \ 

cover  or  have  the  always  in  his  mouth.  If  the  patient 
disease  arrested.  js  a  careless  one,  the  germs  will  surely 

Of  those  who  be-  .  .     ,     ,  _, 

gin  treatment  in  get  on  his  hands  and  clothes.  They 
the  late  stages  of  are  left  on  drinking  cups  and  dishes 

the  disease,  only      h  d  b     consumptives,  they 

19  in  ioo  recover  +  t       r 

or  have  the  disease  may  be  in  food  or  milk  that  a  con- 
arrested.  (From  sumptive  has  handled,  or  they  may 

the  experience  of  _    .  ..      ,       ,         ,         ,       , 

the  State  Sana-  be  left  on  pencils,  books,  door  knobs, 
torium  at  Rutland,  or  on  anything  that  he  has  touched. 
Massachusetts.}  Jf  &Q  sputum  is  not  carefully  de- 
stroyed, the  germs  will  get  on  furniture  and  clothing, 
they  will  be  carried  about  by  flies,  they  will  get  into 
food  and  drinking  water,  and  in  many  ways  they 


TUBERCUL  OSIS  1 5  3 

will  reach  other  persons  and  start  the  disease  in 
them.  When  a  consumptive  coughs  he  may  send 
out  into  the  air  for  several  feet  droplets  of  saliva 
that  are  full  of  germs.  A  consumptive  therefore 
should  hold  a  handkerchief  or  paper  napkin  before 
his  mouth  when  he  coughs,  lest  some  other  person 
breathe  in  the  droplets  and  the  germs  that  fly  from 
his  mouth. 

Spitting  a  most  dangerous  habit.  Spitting  on 
floors,  sidewalks,  or  similar  places  is  a  habit  that 
is  most  dangerous  to  the  health  of  a  community. 
When  tuberculosis  -germs  are  left  in  such  a  place, 
they  are  a  great  danger  to  the  children  that  play 
among  them,  they  are  carried  into  houses  on  shoes 
and  trailing  skirts,  they  are  spread  by  flies  to  food 
exposed  in  stores  and  houses;  and  in  many  other 
ways  they  are  carried  about.  Not  more  than  half 
the  people  who  have  tuberculosis  germs  in  their 
mouths  know  it,  and  no  one  should  spit  on  the 
sidewalk,  in  the  street  car,  or  on  the  floor  of  a 
public  building  or  private  house. 

Germs  .from  a  consumptive  should  be  de- 
stroyed. The  first  great  point  in  preventing  the 
spread  of  germs  from  a  consumptive  is  to  destroy 
the  sputum.  It  should  be  received  in  a  pasteboard 
cup  or  on  a  piece  of  cloth.  This  should  then  be 
burned,  and  not  left  where  flies  can  get  to  it  or 
where  the  germs  may  become  scattered  about  in 
other  ways.  The  dishes  of  a  consumptive  should 


154  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

be  kept  separate  from  those  of  the  rest  of  the  family, 
and  they  should  be  boiled  after  each  time  that  they 
are  used.  A  consumptive  should  wash  his  hands 
occasionally  in  a  disinfectant  (page  169)  to  free 
them  from  germs.  His  handkerchiefs  should  be 
soaked  in  a  disinfectant  or  kept  in  water  until  they 
can  be  boiled,  and  his  clothes  should  be  boiled  be- 
fore they  are  washed  with  other  clothing.  A  con- 
sumptive always  swallows  some  of  the  germs,  and 
these  are  in  the  intestinal  wastes.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  to  keep  these  wastes  covered  from  flies, 
to  prevent  their  polluting  drinking  water,  and  to 
guard  against  their  getting  scattered  on  the  earth 
about  the  homes  of  men. 

Tuberculosis  germs  in  milk.  A  considerable 
number  of  cattle  have  tuberculosis,  and  it  is  now 
known  that  many  persons,  especially  children,  get 
the  disease  from  milk.  All  dairy  cattle  should  be 
examined  to  see  whether  or  not  they  have  the  dis- 
ease. When  milk  is  used  from  cattle  that  have  not 
been  examined,  it  is  best  to  heat  the  milk  to  kili 
the  germs  in  it.  This  will  not  only  help  to  check 
tuberculosis,  but  will  prevent  a  considerable  amount 
of  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  and  other 
diseases  that  are  spread  by  milk. 

The  importance  of  fresh  air  in  the  treatment 
of  consumption.  Every  one  should  understand 
how  important  fresh  air  is  in  building  up  the  body 
BO  that  it  can  resist  germs.  There  is  little  hope  for 


TUBERCULOSIS  1 5 1 

the  consumptive  who  shuts  himself  up  in  the  house 
and  sleeps  with  his  windows  tightly  closed.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  open-air  schools  that  are  run  in 
some  cities  for  children  who  have  tuberculosis,  and 
in  sanatoria  where  the  patients  to  a  great  extent 


FIGS.  101  and  102.    Good  food,  fresh  air,  and  rest  are  very  important 
in  the  treatment  of  consumption. 

live  and  sleep  in  the  open  air,  many  consumptives 
are  being  cured  of  the  disease.  Every  consumptive 
should  have  a  light,  airy  room  that  will  not  only 
give  him  fresh  air  but  will  let  in  the  sunlight  to  kill 
the  germs  in  the  room.  He  should  also  have  some 
place  like  an  upper  porch  where  he  can  spend  a 
great  part  of  his  time  outdoors. 

Food,  rest,  and  a  skilled  physician  important* 
To  gain  the  strength  that  he  needs,  a  consump- 
tive must  have  an  abundance  of  nourishing,  well- 
prepared  food.  He  should  have  rest  and  should 


156  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

not  exercise  or  work,  or  he  will  bring  on  fever  in 
the  afternoons.  *  He  should  also  have  a  skilled 
physician  to  guide  him  in  his  care  of  himself  and 
to  give  him  the  medical  attention  that  he  needs. 
Climate  is  not  very  important  in  the  treatment 
of  consumption,  but  in  general  a  cool,  dry  climate 
is  best.  One  of  the  most  important  points  of  all  is 
to  begin  the  treatment  while  the  disease  is  still  in  its 
early  stages.  Not  only  is  consumption  far  easier  to 
cure  when  it  is  in  its  first  stages  than  later,  but  it 
can  be  cured  in  much  less  time  and  at  much  smaller 
cost. 

Questions :  i.  Explain  the  difference  between  tubercu- 
losis and  consumption.  2.  How  much  does  tuberculosis 
cost  the  people  of  the  United  States  each  year?  3.  How 
does  the  germ  of  tuberculosis  enter  the  body?  4.  Where  do 
tuberculosis  germs  come  from  ?  5.  Mention  some  ways  by 
which  the  germs  are  spread  from  a  consumptive.  6.  Why  is 
the  habit  of  spitting  a  dangerous  one  ?  7 .  How  may  the  germs 
from  a  consumptive  be  destroyed?  8.  What  diseases  be- 
sides tuberculosis  are  caused  by  milk?  9.  How  may  the 
germs  in  milk  be  killed?  10.  Where  should  a  consump- 
tive spend  a  great  part  of  his  time?  n.  Mention  other 
things  that  are  important  in  the  treatment  of  consumption. 
12.  Give  two  reasons  why  the  treatment  of  consumption 
should  be  commenced  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Hygienic  living  as 
a  preventive  of  tuberculosis.  Pasteurizing  milk.  Disinfection  of 
houses  recently  occupied  by  consumptives.  Obtain  Board  of 
Health  bulletins  on  tuberculosis.  Hawes'  Consumption:  What 
It  Is  and  What  to  Do  about  It,  published  by  Small,  Maynard  and 
Company  of  Boston,  is  a  small  volume  of  great  worth. 


CHAPTER  THIRTY-ONE 

OTHER  DISEASES   OF  THE  AIR  PASSAGES  AND  LUNGS 

BESIDES  consumption  there  are 
many  other  diseases  of  the  air 
passages  and  lungs.  The  germs 
of  all  these  diseases  enter  the  body 
through  the  mouth  and  nose,  and 
they  are  all  spread  by  coughing, 
by  spitting  in  public  places,  by 
the  hands,  by  drinking  cups,  and 
in  the  various  other  ways  by  which  FlG-  T.°3 

'       J  cup  that  had  been  m 

the  germs  from  a  consumptive  are  use  in  a  school  for  nine 

scattered  abroad.  da7s  was  examined  and 

^  .  was  estimated  to  have 

Pneumonia.  Pneumonia  causes  on  each  square  inch  of 
more  deaths  in  the  United  States  its  surface  100,000  bac- 
than  any  other  germ  disease  ex-  ten{L 
cept  tuberculosis.  It  is  a  catching  disease,  and  no 
one  should  be  about  a  pneumonia  patient  except 
those  who  are  taking  care  of  him.  The  sputum  of 
a  person  who  has  the  disease  is  filled  with  the 
germs  and  should  be  destroyed. 

Diphtheria.  This  disease  is  caused  by  a  germ 
that  grows  in  the  air  passages,  usually  in  the  throat. 
Generally  the  disease  shows  itself  in  from  one  to 
three  days  after  the  germs  get  into  the  body.  Many 
cases  of  diphtheria  are  so  mild  that  they  are  mis- 
taken for  simple  sore  throat,  but  in  other  cases  it  is 
a  very  severe  disease.  Sometimes  the  germs  remain 
in  the  throat  of  a  diphtheria  patient  for  weeks  or 
even  for  months  after  he  recovers.  It  is  therefore 


158 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


very  important  that  a  physician  examine  any  one 
who  has  recovered  from  diphtheria  to  see  if  he  is 
free  from  the  germs  before  he  is  let  out  of  quaran- 
tine. Some  well  persons  who  have  been  about 

those  who  have  the  disease 
may  carry  the  germs  in 
their  throats  although  they 
themselves  are  not  sick. 
For  this  reason  those  who 
are  living  in  a  family  where 
there  is  diphtheria  should 
be  quarantined  as  well  as 
the  person  who  is  sick,  and 
when  diphtheria  breaks  out 
in  a  school  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  examine  all  the  chil- 
dren in  the  school  and 
FIG.  104.  Sanitary  drinking  quarantine  some  who  are 
fountains  should  be  substi-  carrymg  diphtheria  germs, 
tuted  for  public  drinking  cups.  .. 

In  these  fountains  the  person    even   when    they   are    not 

drinks   the    stream   of  water     sick.      In   the   treatment  of 


so 


diphtheria  nothing  is 
important  as  to  give  anti- 
toxin at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  The  disease 
sometimes  called  membranous  croup  is  diphtheria. 
Whooping  cough.  Whooping  cough  causes  the 
death  of  great  numbers  of  babies,  and  children 
should  be  protected  from  it.  Usually  the  disease 
shows  itself  in  from  four  to  fourteen  days  after  the 


OTHER  DISEASES  OF  THE  LUNGS 


159 


germs  get  into  the  body,  but  sometimes  it  does  not 
appear  for  three  weeks  after  the  person  has  been 
exposed  to  the  disease.  It  is  a  very  catching  dis- 
ease, and  at  the  first  symptoms  of  it  children  should 
be  removed  from  school.  As  a  general  rule  a  child 
may  be  allowed  to  return  to  school  hi  six  weeks  after 


FIGS.  105  and  106.  In  schools  where  the  sanitary  drinking  fountain 
cannot  be  installed,  a  covered  water  cooler  and  individual  cups 
should  be  substituted  for  the  old-fashioned  open  bucket  and  com- 
mon drinking  cups. 

the  beginning  of  the  whoop,  provided  the  hard  cough- 
ing spells  have  ceased. 

Influenza  ("  flu  ").  Agreat  epidemic  of  influenza 
swept  the  world  in  1918-19  and  it  is  probable  that 
we  shall  suffer  from  many  smaller  epidemics  of  it 
for  several  years  to  come.  The  germ  is  not  cer- 
tainly known,  but  it  is  spread  in  the  same  ways 
that  the  germs  of  consumption,  diphtheria,  and 
pneumonia  are  spread.  The  disease  is  the  most  in- 


160  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

factious  known  and  a  patient  is  dangerous  to  others 
chiefly  in  the  very  early  stages. 

From  certain  studies  made  during  the  recent  great 
influenza  epidemic  it  seems  probable  that  many 
cases  were  caused  by  the  use  of  the  dishes  in  public 
eating  places ;  and  in  preventing  all  respiratory  dis- 
eases it  is  important  that  the  dishes  and  glasses  in 
hotels,  restaurants,  and  soda  fountains  be  washed  in 
boiling  water  or  sterilized  by  heat. 

Colds.  Colds  are  probably  caused  by  a  number  of 
different  germs.  They  are  very  catching,  and  the 
germs  are  spread  in  all  the  ways  that  influenza  or 
pneumonia  germs  are  spread.  A  child  who  has  a  bad 
cold  should  not  be  in  school,  and  any  one  with  a  cold 
should  do  all  in  his  power  to  keep  the  germs  from 
spreading  to  others. 

Protecting1  ourselves  from  the  germs  of  re- 
spiratory diseases.  Do  not  stay  about  those  who 
have  diseases  of  the  lungs  and  air  passages  unless 
it  is  necessary  for  you  to  be  with  them.  Turn  away 
from  any  one  who  is  coughing  or  sneezing  toward  you. 
Do  not  handle  objects  that  they  have  handled,  and  do 
not  use  drinking  cups  that  they  have  used.  Do 
not  put  pencils  and  other  articles  into  your  mouth. 
Avoid  breathing  in  dust  as  much  as  possible  (page 
53).  Keep  your  hands  away  from  your  face,  and 
wash  them  well  with  soap  and  water  before  eating. 

These  are  some  of  the  ways  by  which  you  can  keep 
the  germs  that  cause  diseases  of  the  air  passages 


OTHER  DISEASES  OF  THE  LUNGS  l6l 

and  lungs  from  getting  into  your  body.  To  protect 
others,  cover  your  face  with  a  handkerchief  and 
bend  your  head  toward  the  floor  when  you  cough  or 
sneeze. 

Good  health  a  protection  against  certain  germ 
diseases.  We  cannot  depend  on  good  health  to  keep 
us  from  taking  diseases  like  smallpox,  measles, 
typhoid  fever,  and  other  germ  diseases  that  run  a 
quick  course.  Good  health  is  of  great  importance, 
however,  in  helping  us  to  overcome  the  germs  of 
lingering  ailments  like  tuberculosis,  catarrh,  and 
bronchitis,  and  in  protecting  us  from  the  slow- 
growing  races  of  germs  that  often  set  up  their  growth 
in  the  heart,  kidneys,  and  other  vital  organs.  In 
these  diseases  the  body  has  plenty  of  time  to  build 
up  its  defenses,  and  among  the  best  ways  of  protect- 
ing ourselves  against  them  is  to  eat  good  food,  to 
keep  our  teeth  clean  and  sound,  to  take  plenty  of 
sleep  and  exercise,  and  to  make  sure  that  we  have 
an  abundance  of  fresh  air.  We  ought  to  do  even- 
thing  in  our  power  to  avoid  germs,  but  we  ought 
also  to  keep  our  bodies  strong  for  their  battles  with 
the  germs.  This  we  can  do  only  by  giving  our  bodies 
day  by  day  the  care  that  is  necessary  to  keep  them 
in  health. 

Clean  teeth  a  protection  against  germ  diseases. 
Suppose  there  are  two  boys  in  the  same  school ;  that 
one  of  these  boys  has  clean,  sound  teeth,  and  that 
the  other  boy  has  the  other  kind  of  teeth.  Suppose 


1 62  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

that  a  bad  cold,  grip,  pneumonia  or  diphtheria  ap- 
pears in  the  school,  and  that  each  boy  gets  a  few  of 
the  germs  into  his  mouth.  Which  boy  will  probably 
have  the  better  digestion,  the  stronger  body,  and  be 
more  able  to  fight  off  the  germs?  In  which  mouth 
will  the  germs  be  likely  to  grow  and  multiply  until 
the  boy  can  no  longer  resist  them?  Which  boy  is 
more  likely  to  carry  the  germs  for  some  time  in  his 
mouth,  to  have  them  on  his  hands,  and  to  leave 
them  on  anything  he  handles?  These  are  questions 
which  it  will  not  be  hard  for  you  to  decide. 

Questions:  i.  In  what  ways  do  the  germs  of  diseases  cf 
the  air  passages  and  lungs  get  into  the  body?  2.  How  can 
one  prevent  the  scattering  of  germs  from  a  patient  sick  with 
pneumonia?  3.  What  is  the  cause  of  diphtheria?  4.  Why 
should  a  family  in  which  there  is  a  case  of  diphtheria  be 
quarantined?  5.  How  long  should  children  who  have 
whooping  cough  be  kept  out  of  school  and  away  from  well 
children?  6.  How  are  the  germs  of  influenza  spread?  7. 
Does  getting  wet  cause  a  cold?  8.  What  is  the  best  way  to 
avoid  influenza  and  colds?  9.  What  is  the  greatest  protec- 
tion against  diseases  of  the  air  passages  and  the  lungs? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  The  necessity  for 
quarantining  all  cases  of  diphtheria  and  for  sending  home  all  chil- 
dren who  have  communicable  diseases.  Discuss  any  habits  the 
children  may  have  that  allow  the  germs  of  respiratory  diseases 
to  spread  from  one  pupil  to  another.  Discourage  the  passing  of 
objects  from  one  pupil  to  another,  and  put  away  common  drinking 
cups,  wash  basins,  and  towels.  The  teacher  should  realize  that  the 
public  school  is  a  great  disseminator  of  germ  diseases,  and  should 
otrive  to  make  it  as  safe  as  possible  for  the  children  who  attend  it 


CHAPTER  THIRTY-TWO 

MALARIA,   SMALLPOX,  AND  OTHER  GERM  DISEASES 


FIG.  107.  The  mosquito  that  carries  malaria  (A)  has  spots  on  its 
wings  and  stands  up  on  its  head  when  resting  and  biting.  The  com- 
mon mosquito  takes  the  position  shown  in  B. 

Malaria.  The  germ  of  malaria  grows  in  the 
blood,  and  a  person  who  is  attacked  by  this  disease 
may  be  troubled  with  it  for  months  or  years.  One 
person  cannot  catch  malaria  from  another  person, 
but  if  a  mosquito  bites  any  one  who  has  malaria 
germs  in  his  blood,  the  mosquito  gets  the  disease. 
Then,  if  the  mosquito  bites  another  person,  it  will 
leave  the  germs  in  the  blood  of  the  latter,  and  about 
a  week  later  this  person  will  have  malaria.  It  was 
formerly  thought  that  breathing  air  from  swamps  or 
drinking  impure  water  caused  malaria,  but  we  now 
know  that  these  ideas  are  not  correct  and  that  the 
disease  is  spread  only  by  mosquitoes.  In  the  next 

chapter  we  shall  study  how  to  destroy  mosquitoes. 

163 


164  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

Smallpox.  Smallpox  was  formerly  one  of  the 
most  feared  of  all  diseases,  because  nearly  every  one 
who  was  exposed  to  it  took  the  disease,  and  because 
a  great  number  of  those  who  were  attacked  by  it 
died.  A  little  over  a  hundred  years  ago  it  was  found 
that  a  person  could  be  protected  against  smallpox 
by  vaccination.  Now  all  that  we  have  to  do  to  es- 
cape the  disease  is  to  be  vaccinated,  and  in  countries 
where  vaccination  is  practiced  by  all  the  people, 
smallpox  is  almost  an  unknown  disease. 

Scarlet  fever.  Some  cases  of  scarlet  fever  are 
mild,  but  others  are  very  severe.  The  germs  are 
in  the  discharges  from  the  nose,  mouth,  and  eyes, 
but  the  scales  from  the  skin  are  not  dangerous,  as 
was  formerly  supposed.  Many  bad  after-effects 
follow  this  disease,  and  it  should  be  carefully  quar- 
antined. It  usually  appears  in  from  one  to  seven 
days  after  the  germs  are  taken  into  the  body;  in 
most  cases  it  is  from  two  to  four  days.  A  patient 
is  dangerous  as  long  as  the  discharges  from  the 
eyes,  ears,  and  nose  continue.  Usually  cases  of 
scarlet  fever  are  quarantined  for  about  fifty  days. 

Measles.  Measles  is  a  very  catching  disease. 
The  matter  from  the  nose  and  throat  is  especially 
dangerous,  and  the  germs,  like  the  germs  of  scarlet 
fever  and  smallpox,  may  be  carried  on  clothing. 
No  one  with  a  cold  should  be  allowed  to  come  near 
a  person  who  has  measles,  and  the  eyes  should  be 
shaded  and  carefully  guarded  during  this  disease. 


MALARIA,  SMALLPOX  AND  OTHER  DISEASES  165 

A  patient  is  usually  dangerous  to  others  for  about 
three  weeks  after  the  time  of  the  breaking  out  of  the 
rash.  The  germs  die  out  in  a  house  in  about  two 
weeks.  Measles  ought  to  be  carefully  quarantined, 
for  it  is  a  most  dangerous  disease  and  causes  about 
eight  thousand  deaths  a  year  in  the  United  States. 

Mumps.  One  who  has  mumps  is  dangerous  to 
others  for  about  a  week  after  the  swelling  has  gone. 
The  disease  generally  appears  from  thirteen  to 
twenty  days  after  the  person  has  been  exposed  to 
the  germs. 

Boils  and  inflammation.  Boils,  carbuncles, 
pimples,  bone  felons,  blood  poisoning,  and  all  in- 
flammation in  wounds  and  sores  are  caused  by 
germs.  Germs  from  a  boil  should  not  be  allowed 
to  reach  other  persons  or  the  trouble  may  be  spread. 
It  is  a  common  thing  for  a  person  with  a  boil  to 
scratch  the  germs  into  the  skin  and  bring  on  a  whole 
crop  of  boils  in  other  parts  of  his  body.1 

A  cut  or  a  sore  should  be  tied  up  to  keep  germs 
from  getting  into  it,  and  if  particles  of  dirt  have 
gotten  into  a  wound  they  should  be  removed.  Gen- 
erally this  can  best  be  done  by  washing  the  wound 
with  warm  water,  using  when  necessary  a  clean 
cloth  rubbed  on  pure  soap  to  wipe  out  the  dirt.  A 
fresh  wound  is  often  best  treated  by  tying  it  up  "in 

1  A  physician  reports  that  a  young  girl  who  was  suffering  with  a 
boil  visited  four  different  girl  friends  in  four  different  families,  and 
in  each  case  the  girl  visited  was  attacked  by  boils. 


1 66 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


the  blood  "  and  not  opening  it  until  it  has  healed. 
Iodine  is  excellent  for  treating  cuts  and  wounds. 
Carbolated  vaseline  or  borated  vaseline  is  useful  in 
treating  small  sores  that  have  matter  in  them. 

Tetanus.    The  germ  of  tetanus  or  lockjaw  lives 
in   the   earth,   especially  about  horse   stables.     It 


FIGS.  108  and  109.     A  little  time  spent  in  cleansing  and  caring  for 
a  wound  may  save  trouble  later. 

grows  best  in  small,  deep  wounds  and  in  wounds 
that  get  earth  and  dust  into  them.  Deep  wounds 
made  by  rusty  nails  or  other  unclean  objects  should 
be  cleansed  by  a  physician.  Wounds  made  by  toy 
pistols  and  firecrackers  are  also  likely  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  tetanus  and  should  be  cared  for  by  a  physi- 
cian. An  antitoxin  for  this  disease  has  been  prepared 
which  is  almost  sure  to  prevent  it  if  used  in  time. 
This  is  now  often  given  after  Fourth  of  July  wounds. 


MALARIA,  SMALLPOX  AND  OTHER  DISEASES  167 

Other  germ  diseases.  Among  other  diseases 
that  are  caused  by  germs  may  be  mentioned  chicken 
pox,  German  measles,  acute  (inflammatory)  rheu- 
matism, meningitis,  cholera,  leprosy,  plague,  and 
yellow  fever.  Germs  also  cause  many  diseases  of 
animals.  One  of  these  diseases  is  rabies  or  hydro- 
phobia, which  man  sometimes  gets  from  the  bite  or 
scratch  of  a  dog  or  cat.  Some  persons  think  that 
dogs  take  rabies  because  of  a  lack  of  water  or  be- 
cause of  hot  weather,  but  this  is  not  correct.  They 
may  have  the  disease  at  any  time  of  the  year,  and 
they  get  the  germ  from  the  bite  of  another  animal 
that  has  the  disease.  The  Pasteur  treatment  will 
almost  always  prevent  rabies  if  it  is  begun  hi 
time. 

Questions  :  i.  How  are  the  germs  of  malaria  carried  from 
one  person  to  another?  2.  How  are  scarlet  fever  and  measles 
spread  from  one  person  to  another?  3.  Why  is  it  necessary 
to  quarantine  these  diseases?  4.  What  is  the  cause  of  boils 
and  pimples?  5.  Why  is  one  boil  often  followed  after  a  few 
days  by  others  on  other  parts  of  the  body?  6.  What  is  the 
best  way  of  caring  for  wounds  of  the  skin?  7.  Why  is  a 
small,  deep  wound  dangerous  unless  carefully  cleaned? 
8.  What  is  the  cause  of  rabies? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  The  importance  of 
screening  malarial  patients  to  prevent  infection  of  the  mosquitoes, 
and  of  screening  houses  and  sleeping  under  mosquito  nets  in 
malarial  countries.  The  importance  of  vaccination.  The  fool- 
ishness of  allowing  communicable  diseases  to  nm  through  schools, 
because  they  are  regarded  as  not  very  severe.  The  teacher  should 
secure  health  bulletins  and  become  familiar  with  the  symptoms 
of  any  infectious  diseases  that  threaten  the  school. 


CHAPTER  THIRTY-THREE 

PREVENTING  THE  SPREAD   OF  DISEASE  GERMS 

SOMETIMES  a  farmer  finds  thistles  springing  up  in 
his  pasture  year  after  year,  even  when  he  has  care- 
fully cut  down  all  the  thistles  that  are  on  his  own 
land.  Then  the  farmer  knows  that  some  of  his 
neighbors  are  raising  thistles  and  allowing  the  wind 
to  blow  the  seeds  about.  A  thistle  grows  only  from 
a  thistle  seed,  and  as  long  as  they  keep  appearing  IP 
the  pasture  the  seeds  must  come  from  somewhere. 

Disease  germs,  like  thistles,  do  not  come  from  no- 
where*. Every  case  of  typhoid  fever  is  caused  by 
germs  that  come  from  another  case  of  typhoid  fever. 
Every  case  of  whooping  cough  is  caused  by  germs 
that  come  from  another  case  of  whooping  cough. 
Every  case  of  grip  is  caused  by  germs  that  come 
from  another  case  of  grip.  The  people  who  have 
these  and  other  catching  diseases  scatter  the  germs 
abroad  just  as  a  thistle  scatters  its  seeds.  One  very 
important  way  of  checking  the  spread  of  these  dis- 
eases is  to  destroy  the  germs  that  come  from  sick 
people  and  not  allow  them  to  get  spread  abroad. 

Disinfectants.  A  disinfectant  is  something 
that  kills  germs.  Light  and  drying  are  two  of  na^ 
ture's  disinfectants  that  are  great  enemies  of  germs. 
Fire  is  one  of  the  best  disinfectants  for  sputum  and 
articles  of  little  value,  and  boiling  water  kills  dis- 
ease germs  at  once.  Germs  may  also  be  killed  by 
bichlorid  of  mercury,  quicklime,  carbolic  acid,  lysol, 
and  other  substances  that  can  be  purchased  at  drug 

168 


PREVENTING  THE  SPREAD   OF  GERMS     169 

stores.  Carbolic  acid  and  lysol  are  good  disinfect- 
ants. For  intestinal  wastes,  a  strong  whitewash  made 
of  quicklime  (slaked  lime  is  useless)  is  cheap,  and  as 
good  as  anything  that  can 'be  used.  For  furniture, 
floors,  and  the  hands,  bichlorid  of  mercury  is  often 
used,  but  it  destroys  metals.  One  of  the  best  dis- 
infectants for  the  hands  and  for  objects  that  are 
made  of  metal  is  put  up  in  tablets  that  contain 
biniodid  of  mercury  and  potassium  iodid. 

Mistakes  in  disinfecting.  People  often  make 
a  disinfectant  too  weak  to  injure  the  germs.  For 
example,  a  few  spoonfuls  of  carbolic  acid  are  put  into 
a  bucketful  of  water,  when  a  whole  pint  of  the  acid 
to  a  bucketful  (ten  quarts)  of  water  is  needed  to 
make  a  disinfectant  strong  enough  to  kill  germs. 
It  is  also  a  mistake  to  use  too  small  an  amount  of 
a  disinfectant,  or  not  to  allow  the  material  to  re- 
main in  it  long  enough  to  do  the  work.  The  rule 
followed  in  hospitals  is  to  use  as  much  disinfectant 
as  there  is  material  to  be  disinfected,  and  matter  like 
intestinal  wastes  should  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the 
disinfectant  for  several  hours. 

The  mistake  of  allowing  germs  to  be  scat- 
tered about  a  sickroom.  One  trouble  in  the  sick- 
room is  that  the  person  nursing  a  case  of  some 
disease  like  typhoid  fever  works  about  the  bed  of 
the  patient  and  then  touches  his  own  clothing  or  other 
articles  in  the  room  before  disinfecting  his  hands. 
If  this  is  done,  the  germs  soon  get  on  everything 


I/O 


PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 


in  the  room,  and  any  one  who  even  touches  a  door< 
knob,  a  chair,  or  a  curtain  in  such  a  room  is  likely  to 
get  the  germs  on  his  hands.  A  basin  of  disinfectant 
should  be  kept  close  at  hand,  and  the  hands  washed 

in  it  after  doing  any  work 
that  is  likely  to  leave  germs 
on  them.  Large  aprons  that 
will  protect  the  clothing  should 
be  worn  in  the  sickroom,  and 
they  should  be  changed  fre- 
quently. Remember  that 
germs  are  so  small  that  fifty 
millions  of  them  have  plenty 
of  room  to  swim  in  a  drop 
of  water,  and  that  it  requires 
great  care  to  keep  them  from 
becoming  scattered  about. 

Keeping  our  houses  free 
from  flies.  Flies  are  great  carriers  of  disease  germs, 
for  they  swarm  about  all  manner  of  uncleanness, 
and  then  come  into  the  house  and  walk  over  food 
and  dishes,  or  on  our  very  hands  and  faces.  Houses 
should  be  screened,  and  everything  possible  should 
be  done  to  keep  flies  out  of  them,  but  the  best  way 
to  fight  flies  is  to  keep  them  from  breeding  about 
our  homes. 

The  egg  of  the  fly  is  laid  in  manure  and  sometimes 
in  garbage.  The  egg  hatches  into  a  little  white 
maggot,  and  in  about  ten  days  the  maggot  changes 


FIG.  no.  The  leg  and 
foot  of  a  fly  as  seen  under 
a  microscope.  On  their 
legs  and  feet  flies  often 
carry  thousands  of  germs. 


PREVENTING  THE  SPREAD   OF  GERMS     1 71 

into  a  fly.  If  all  manure  and  garbage  is  hauled  away 
and  disposed  of  every  week,  or  kept  covered  so  that 
flies  cannot  get  to  it  to  lay  their  eggs,  then  the  flies 
will  have  no  place  to  hatch.  If  the  people  of  a 
town  should  buy  great  numbers  of  incubators  and 
hatch  chickens  in  every  yard,  they  would  expect  the 
chickens  to  become  very  abundant  about  them. 


A  u          r  '  B 

FIG.  in.     The  life  history  of  the  fly.    A  shows  the  eggs  ;  5,  the 
larva  or  maggot;  C,  the  pupa,  and  D  the  adult  fly. 

So  if  they  keep  incubators  in  the  form  of  manure 
heaps  for  hatching  flies,  they  must  expect  that  the 
town  will  swarm  with  flies.  Flies  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  get  hi  to  the  sickroom,  nor  should  they  be 
allowed  to  touch  the  germ-filled  sputum  and  wastes 
that  come  from  the  sick. 

Freeing  our  homes  from  mosquitoes.  The  egg 
of  a  mosquito  is  laid  on  water,  and  hatches  into  a 
wiggler.  In  hot  weather  the  wiggler  turns  into  a 
mosquito  in  about  ten  days.  The  best  way  to  fight 
mosquitoes  is  to  drain  the  pools  of  water,  cover  or 


1/2  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

remove  the  rain  barrels,  screen  or  cover  the  cisterns, 
and  carry  away  the  old  tin  cans  and  buckets  in  which 
the  mosquitoes  hatch.  The  wigglers  and  eggs  in  a 
pool  or  barrel  can  easily  be  killed  by  pouring  kero- 
sene on  the  water,  and  a  water  tank  or  barrel  can  be 
kept  free  from  mosquitoes  by  putting  a  few  minnows 
or  other  small  fish  into  it.  Some  mosquitoes  fly 
considerable  distances,  but  the  kinds  that  carry 
malaria  and  yellow  fever  spend  their  lives  near  the 
place  where  they  are  hatched,  that  is,  within  a  few 
hundred  yards  of  it.  A  town  or  a  country  house  can 
easily  free  itself  from  disease-carrying  mosquitoes 
by  looking  after  the  breeding  places  that  are  near  it, 

Impure  water  a  carrier  of  disease  germs.  The 
germs  that  are  most  commonly  taken  into  the 
body  in  water  are  the  germs  of  typhoid  fever  and 
other  diseases  of  the  intestine.  In  diseases  like 
pneumonia,  diphtheria,  grip,  and  consumption,  how- 
ever, the  germs  are  swallowed,  and  are  in  the  wastes 
from  the  intestine,  and  may  be  spread  by  water. 
Figure  96  shows  how  important  it  is  for  a  city  to 
provide  a  good  water  supply  for  its  inhabitants,  and 
any  one  who  uses  water  from  a  private  well  or  spring 
cannot  take  too  much  care  in  guarding  his  drinking 
water  from  disease  germs. 

Keeping  germs  out  of  a  well  or  spring.  In  a 
mountainous  country  where  the  earth  contains 
cracked  and  sloping  layers  of  rock,  germs  can  make 
their  way  through  cracks  in  the  rocks  for  long  dis- 


PREVENTING   THE  SPREAD   OF  GERMS     1/3 

tances  into  wells  and  springs.  Germs  cannot  pass 
through  more  than  a  few  feet  of  soil,  however,  and 
in  a  level  country  where  the  wells  are  dug  entirely 
through  soil,  germs  can  get  into  a  well  only  at  the 
mouth.  They  do  this  by  getting  on  well-ropes  and 
pumps  from  the  ringers  of  germ  carriers  and  the  fin- 


FIG.  112.  A  shows  a  well  so  arranged  that  surface  water  and  germs 
are  kept  out  of  it.  B  shows  how  surface  water  and  germs  get  into  a 
well. 

gers  of  those  who  have  been  waiting  on  the  sick;  from 
the  feet  of  those  who  stand  on  the  platform;  from 
surface  water  that  flows  over  the  soil  and  runs  down 
behind  the  wall  into  the  well;  or  from  clothes  that 
are  washed  near  the  well.  Arrange  the  covering  of 
the  well  so  that  nothing  can  get  into  it  at  the  mouth, 
for  usually  disease  germs  get  into  the  well  by  this 
way  and  not  from  deep  in  the  ground.  A  spring  is 
never  safe  as  long  as  surface  water  can  flow  into  it. 


174  PRIMER  OF  HYGIENE 

and  in  rocky  regions  it  is  difficult  to  tell  where  the 
water  of  a  spring  comes  from  or  when  it  is  safe. 

Disposing  of  the  body  wastes.  Most  disease 
germs  that  attack  us  grow  either  in  the  air  passages 
and  lungs,  or  in  the  mouth,  throat,  and  intestine. 
These  germs  leave  the  body  in  the  sputum  and  in 
the  body  wastes.  It  is  unsafe  therefore  for  people 
to  spit  in  public  places,  and  it  is  even  more  unsafe 
for  the  body  wastes  to  be  scattered  about.  These 
wastes  should  never  be  allowed  to  pollute  the  soil 
about  houses;  they  should  not  be  left  where  rains 
can  wash  them  over  yards  and  into  wells  and  springs, 
and  they  should  not  be  left  where  flies  can  carry 
them*  about.  Perhaps  no  other  one  thing  is  so  im- 
portant to  the  health  of  the  world  as  a  safe  method 
of  disposing  of  human  wastes. 

Questions^  i.  Where  do  disease  germs  come  from?  2.  What 
is  a  disinfectant?  3.  Name  some  disinfectants.  4.  What 
mistakes  are  often  made  in  disinfecting?  5.  How  can  we 
keep  germs  from  getting  on  objects  in  a  sickroom?  6.  Ex- 
plain where  flies  breed  and  how  one  can  get  rid  of  them. 
7.  What  diseases  are  spread  by  water?  8.  Explain  how 
germs  get  into  a  well  or  spring  and  how  to  keep  them  out  of 
it.  9.  Where  do  germs  grow  in  the  body  and  how  do  they 
leave  the  body? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development:  Show  the  advan- 
tages of  isolation,  quarantine,  and  disinfection  in  dealing  with  in- 
fectious diseases.  Show  how  many  diseases  have  been  eradicated 
by  these  measures  and  how  the  only  hope  of  limiting  the  spread 
of  certain  diseases  now  prevalent  lies  along  these  lines.  Make  it 


PREVENTING   THE  SPREAD   OF  GERMS     1?$ 

plain  that  disease  germs  do  not  get  into  a  cistern  from  a  hot,  dry 
roof,  but  from  the  people  who  come  about  the  cistern. 

In  nearly  all  village  and  rural  communities  the  methods  of  dis- 
posing of  excreta  offer  endless  opportunities  for  infection  with 
germs  of  all  kinds  and  with  intestinal  worms.  Show  how  the 
presence  of  germ-carriers  renders  imperative  some  sanitary  method 
of  disposing  of  human  excreta. 

Bulletins  on  The  Housefly  and  The  Mosquito  can  be  obtained  free 
from  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  In  re- 
gions where  mosquitoes  are  very  numerous,  this  repellent,  recom- 
mended by  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  may  be  found  of  use: 
one  part  cedar  oil,  two  parts  oil  of  citronella,  two  parts  spirits  of 
camphor. 

The  Anopheles  (malaria-carrying)  mosquito  has  spots  on  its  wings 
and  it  stands  up  on  its  head  when  sitting  or  biting.  In  its  breeding 
habits  it  is  a  half-wild  species,  and  the  young  are  usually  reared  in 
pools,  ditches,  and  brooks  and  not  in  vessels  of  water  about  houses. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  an  area  of  twelve  of  our  Southern  states  in 
which  the  total  population  is  twenty-five  millions,  at  least  four 
per  cent  of  the  population  suffer  attacks  of  malaria  each  year,  and 
that  one  death  occurs  from  this  cause  for  every  fifty  to  three 
hundred  cases  of  the  disease.  There  are  also  certain  areas  of  our 
country  outside  of  the  South  where  malaria  is  very  prevalent.  Any 
teacher  who  is  located  in  a  malarial  region  should  teach  very 
thoroughly  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  disease  along  with  the  details 
of  the  life  of  the  Anopheles  mosquito  and  the  means  of  combating 
it.  In  many  communities  coarse-meshed  screens  (fly  screens) 
that  will  not  turn  mosquitoes  are  used.  A  mesh  of  at  least  six- 
teen strands  of  wire  to  the  inch  is  necessary  to  keep  Anopheles 
mosquitoes  out  of  houses,  and  all  small  openings  and  crevices, 
must  be  closed  to  prevent  the  mosquitoes  from  finding  an  entrance. 


CHAPTER  THIRTY-FOUR 

KEEPING  UP  THE   RESISTANCE  OF  THE  BODY  TO 
DISEASE   GERMS 

IN  a  telephone  exchange  in  Massachusetts  employ- 
ing over  sixty  girls,  a  record  of  the  absences  on  ac- 
count of  sickness  was  kept  for  a  number  of  years.  The 
amount  of  sickness  was  greatest  in  the  winter,  when 
many  of  the  girls  suffered  from  colds  and  grip,  and 
during  the  hot  weather  of  July  and  August,  when 
there  was  always  considerable  sickness  from  dis- 
eases of  the  digestive  organs.  Finally,  a  ventilator 
was  put  into  the  building.  The  first  summer  this  was 
in  use,  the  amount  of  sickness  was  not  much  affected, 
but  when  the  second  spell  of  hot  summer  weather 
came  again  the  girls  were  not  sick  as  they  had  been 
in  other  years.  Breathing  the  pure  air  through  a 
whole  winter  had  so  built  up  their  strength  and  im- 
proved their  health  that  they  could  resist  the  germs 
that  caused  the  summer  diseases.  In  the  winter 
months  themselves,  the  girls  to  a  great  extent  es- 
caped the  colds  from  which  they  had  suffered,  and 
the  amount  of  sickness  for  the  winter  was  less  than 
half  what  it  had  been  before  the  ventilator  was  put 
into  the  building. 

Building  up  the  resistance  of  the  body  to 
disease  germs.  From  the  experience  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts telephone  company,  we  can  learn  two  les- 
sons. The  first  is  that  by  living  in  a  healthful  way 
we  can  build  up  our  bodies  so  that  they  will  have  a 
greater  resistance  to  germ  diseases.  The  other  is 

176 


KEEPING   UP  RESISTANCE   TO   GERMS      1 77 

that  building  up  the  body  so  that  it  can  resist  germs 
is  not  the  work  of  a  day  or  a  week,  but  of  months. 
We  may  take  pneumonia  or  grip  this  year  because 
last  year  we  did  not  care  for  ourselves  and  so  weak- 
ened our  bodies.  Hygienic  habits  of  living  are  what 
we  need  at  all  times  to  help  us  hi  our  fight,  with  the 
germs. 

The  house  and  the  health.  Far  more  than 
most  persons  know,  the  houses  in  which  we  live 
affect  the  health.  If  a  house  is  small,  or  too  many 
people  are  crowded  into  it,  it  is  impossible  to  keep 
the  air  pure.  If  there  is  only  one  place  in  the  house 
where  the  teeth  can  be  cleaned,  probably  the  people 
who  live  in  the  house  will  often  hurry  off  to  work  in 
the  morning  with  uncleaned  teeth.  If  there  is  no 
place  in  the  bathroom  but  the  wash  basin  hi  which 
to  clean  the  teeth,  no  one  will  be  able  to  wash  his  face 
without  covering  it  with  all  the  different  kinds  of 
germs  that  have  been  brought  into  the  house. 

If  the  floors  are  cold,  the  mother  and  the  children 
who  stay  in  the  house  all  day  will  suffer  and  have 
their  health  injured.  If  the  rooms  are  dark  and 
damp,  any  germs  that  get  into  them  will  remain 
alive  for  weeks  after  they  would  have  been  dead  in 
a  dry,  sunny  room.  The  thing  to  do,  therefore,  if 
you  are  living  hi  an  unhealthful  house,  is  to  get  out 
of  it  if  you  can,  and  if  you  must  remain  hi  it,  arrange 
it  so  that  it  will  be  as  easy  as  possible  to  live  a  health- 
ful life.  Avoid  above  everything  being  crowded  to- 


178  PRIMER   OF  HYGIENE 

gether  with  other  people,  for  the  closer  people  live 
together,  the  more  they  trade  germs  with  each 
other,  and  the  harder  it  is  to  keep  conditions  about 
them  healthful. 

The  community  and  the  health  of  the  citizen. 
If  a  man  has  a  geranium,  he  has  a  right,  if  he  wishes 
to  do  so,  to  put  it  in  a  cold,  dark  cellar  and  let  it 
wither;  but  no  man  has  a  right  to  keep  people  in 
damp,  dark,  crowded  houses  in  which  women  and 
children  fade  away  and  die.  If  a  man  has  a  barrel  of 
apples,  he  has  a  right  to  put  a  rotten  apple  in  the 
barrel;  but  no  man  has  a  right  to  go  out  and  scatter 
abroad  germs  that  may  cause  disease  and  death  in 
other  people.  Therefore  we  have  public  health  offi- 
cers to  guard  the  health  of  the  whole  people.  It  is 
right  that  we  should  have  officers  of  this  kind.  It  is 
right  that  they  should  see  that  people  are  not  made 
to  live  in  unhealthf ul  houses  or  to  work  in  unhygienic 
factories.  It  is  right  that  health  officers  should  insist 
upon  a  town's  having  a  pure  water  supply  and  a  clean 
milk  supply;  that  they  should  quarantine  those  who 
have  diseases  that  are  dangerous  to  others;  and 
that  they  should  require  every  one  to  live  so  that  he 
will  not  injure  the  health  of  others.  It  is  the  duty 
of  every  good  citizen  to  assist  the  health  officers  in 
their  work,  for  just  as  a  house  should  be  arranged 
so  that  it  will  be  easy  for  those  in  it  to  lead  a  health- 
ful life,  so  a  community  should  be  kept  in  such  a 
condition  that  it  will  be  as  easy  as  possible  for  every 
one  in  it  to  escape  disease. 


KEEPING   UP  RESISTANCE  TO   GERMS         179 

Vaccination  and  resistance  to  germ  diseases. 

By  vaccination  it  is  possible  to  raise  the  resistance  of 
the  body  to  certain  germ  diseases.  Among  these 
diseases  are  smallpox,  rabies,  typhoid  fever,  pneu- 
monia, and  whooping  cough.  The  body  can  be 
made  resistant  to  the  diphtheria  germs  also  by  the 
use  of  antitoxin  or  by  treatment  with  small  doses  of 
the  toxin.  Often  it  is  impossible  to  escape  exposure 
to  certain  kinds  of  germs,  and  in  such  conditions  it  is 
a  great  advantage  if  the  resistance  of  the  body  can 
be  raised  by  vaccination  until  the  germs  cannot 
grow  in  it.  Physicians  and  health  officers  advise 
that  all  persons  everywhere  be  vaccinated  against 
smallpox;  in  many  places  they  advise  vaccination 
against  typhoid  fever;  and  some  of  them  advise 
vaccination  against  pneumonia  also. 

Questions:  i.  What  effect  had  ventilating  the  room  in 
which  they  worked,  on  the  girls  of  the  Massachusetts  tele- 
phone exchange?  2.  What  two  lessons  in  hygiene  can  we 
learn  from  this?  3.  Mention  some  hygienic  faults  some- 
times found  in  houses.  4.  Study  the  house  in  which  you  live 
and  decide  how  it  could  be  made  a  more  healthful  dwelling. 
5.  Why  should  we  have  public  health  officers?  6.  Against 
what  diseases  is  it  possible  to  raise  the  resistance  of  the  body 
by  vaccination? 

Suggestions  and  topics  for  development :  Lay  great  stress 
upon  the  importance  of  a  hygienic  environment.  Often  the  badly 
heated,  poorly  ventilated  schoolroom  will  offer  a  good  starting 
point  for  practical  suggestions.  A  schoolhouse  that  has  a  cold 
floor  should  have  special  attention. 


DISTRIBUTION   OF  VITAMINS  IN  SOME  COMMON  FOODS 


NAME  OF  FOOD 


VITAMIN 
FOUND  ES- 
PECIALLY IN 

LEAFY 

VEGETABLES 

AND  FATS 


VITAMIN  THAT 
PREVENTS 
DISEASE  OF 
THE  NERVOUS 
SYSTEM  (ANTI- 
BERIBERI 
VITAMIN) 


VITAMIN  THAT 
PREVENTS 

SCURVY  (ANTI- 
SCORBUTIC 
VITAMIN) 


Foods  of  Animal  Origin  : 
Lean  meat  — beef,  mutton, 

etc x 

Liver xx 

Butter,  beef  fat,  cod  liver 

oil xxx 

Lard o 

Milk,  raw xx 

Milk,  skimmed     ....  o 

Milk,  condensed,  sweetened  x 

Eggs,  fresh       .     .     .     .  c  .:  .  xx 

Fish,  white o 

Fish  fat  (salmon,  herring, 

etc.) xx 

Foods  of  Plant  Origin : 
Whole  grain  of  wheat,  rice, 

or  corn x 

White    wheat    flour,   pure 

corn  flour,  polished  rice  .  o 

White  potatoes,  raw      .     .  x 

Sweet  potatoes     ....          xx 

Carrots,  raw x 

Turnips,  raw    .... 
Cabbage,  fresh,  raw       .     .  xx 

Cabbage,  fresh,  cooked 
Lettuce xx 

Tomatoes,  canned  .  .  . 
Lemon  juice,  orange  juice 
Nuts  x 


X 
XX 


X 
X 
X 

xxx 

o 


o 

XX 
X 


XX 


X 
X 

slight 


X 

xxx 
xxx 

X 
XX 

XX 

xxx 


xxx  =  very  abundant,  xx  =  moderately  abundant,  x  =  smaller  amount. 

180 


INDEX 


ACCIDENTS,  what  to  do  in  case  of, 
127-130 

Adenoids,  60-62;  effects  of,  61; 
frequency  of,  60;  importance  of 
removal  of,  61 

Mr,  necessity  for,  46 

Air  passages,  53;  effects  of  dust  on, 
54;  of  tobacco  smoke  on,  56 

Alcohol,  an  ally  of  tuberculosis, 
105;  not  a  brain  stimulant,  103; 
and  length  of  life,  106;  attitude 
of  employers  toward,  107;  atti- 
tude of  medical  men  toward, 
108;  effects  on  body,  103-109; 
on  digestive  organs,  37 ;  on  heart, 
66;  on  lungs,  57;  on  resistance  to 
germ  diseases,  105 ;  in  war,  107 

Antidotes,  for  poisons,  129,  130 

Antitoxin,  in  diphtheria,  158 

Arsenic,  antidote  for  poisoning  by, 
130 

BACTERIA,  cause  of  spoiling  of  food, 
22;  how  they  enter  food,  23,  24; 
keeping  out  of  food,  23;  killed 
by  heat,  24;  by  gastric  juice,  28 

Bathing,  75 

Baths,  cold,  76 

Bichlorid  of  mercury,  antidote  for, 
130 

Bile,  29 

Bleeding,  how  to  stop  from  cuts, 
66;  from  the  nose,  67 

Blood,  64,  65 

Blood  vessels,  64 

Body,  carriage  of,  82-84;  organs  of, 
5;  parts  of,  5 

Boils,  due  to  germs,  165 

Bones,  broken,  care  of,  127 

Brain,  effect  of  alcohol  on,  103-105; 


work  of,  92 
Breathing  exercises,  directions  for, 

138-140;  value  of,  57 
Breathing     through    mouth,    evil 

effects  of,  59 

181 


Breeding  places  of  flies,  170-171; 

of  mosquitoes,  171 
Building  foods,  10 
Burns,  care  of,  127 
Buying  foods,  15-18 

CANDY,  harm  done  by,  35 
Carbolic  acid,  antidote  for,  130 
Carbon  dioxid,  injurious  to  body, 

47 

Care  of  foods,  22-25  * 
Chewing  food,  importance  of,  33 
Cholera    infantum,    how    caused, 

148 
Clothing,     77-79;    changing    with 

weather  changes,   78;  effects  of 

wet,  78;  in  cold  weather,  77 
Coarse  foods,  value  of,  35 
Coffee,  use  of,  33 
Cold  drinks,  harm  done  by,  33 
Colds,  causes  of,  160;  restriction  of, 

160 
Consumption,  hi  dusty  trades,  54. 

See  Tuberculosis 
Cooking,  19-21 
Corrosive  sublimate,  antidote  for, 

129 

Croup,  membranous,  158 
Cuts,  how  to  bandage,  66 

DEAFNESS,  causes  of,  123 
Diarrhea,    how  caused,  148;    how 

spread,  148 
Digestion,  organs  of,   26;    process 

of,    27-30;     in    mouth,    27;     in 

small  intestine,  29;  hi  stomach, 

28 
Digestive  organs,  keeping  in  health, 

32-37 
Diphtheria,  157;  antitoxin  in,  158; 


membranous   croup   a   form   of, 
158;  quarantine  in,  158 
Disease  germs,  141-143;    cause  of 
catching  diseases,  141;    of   run- 
ning ears,   123;  keeping  out  of 


182 


INDEX 


food,  24;  list  of  diseases  caused 

by,  142;  size  of,  142 
Diseases  of  air  passages  and  lungs, 

157-160;    of    alimentary    canal, 

144-149 
Disinfectants,  168;  mistaken  ideas 

about,  169 
Drowning,  what  to  do  in  apparent, 

128 
Dust,    dangers    of   breathing,    53; 

keeping  down,  54 

EAR  and  its  care,  121-126;  danger 
from  running,  1 23 ;  foreign  bodies 
in,  125;  function  of  parts,  122; 
structure  of,  122;  treatment  of 
running,  124 

Eating,  irregular  habits  of,  34 

Enamel  of  teeth,  how  injured,  42 

Esophagus,  27 

Exercise,  32,  86-89;  an  aid  to  di- 
gestion, 87;  danger  of  over-exer- 
cising, 88;  in  the  schoolroom,  88; 
proper  position  for,  131;  rules 
in  regard  to,  87;  violent,  injuri- 
ous, 65,  88 

Exercises,  breathing,  138;  for  arms, 
132-134;  for  legs,  134-137;  for 
trunk  muscles,  137-138;  for  use 
in  schools,  131-140 

Eyes,  avoiding  diseases  of,  118- 
119;  care  of  the,  113-120;  how 
moved,  114;  how  protected,  114; 
injury  to,  from  poor  light,  117; 
resting,  118;  troubles  of,  in  chil- 
dren, 116;  danger  of  neglect,  116, 
117 

FAINTING,  treatment  of,  128 

Farsightedness,  115 

Fats,  12,  20 

Flies,  as  germ  carriers,  170;  of  in- 
testinal diseases,  148;  of  tu- 
berculosis germs,  152-153;  of 
typhoid  germs,  145 


Flux,  how  caused  and  spread,  148 

Food  preservatives,  caution  against, 
24 

Foods,  as  building  material,  9; 
buying,  15-18;  care  of,  22-25; 
cooking,  19-21;  as  source  of 
heat,  n;  in  treatment  of  tuber- 
culosis, 155;  unsafe  when 
handled,  145;  uses  in  the  body, 
9-13;  use  of  fatty,  u 

Fresh  air  treatment  of  consump- 
tion, 154 

GASTRIC  juice,  28 

Germ,  tuberculosis,  in  discharges 
of  consumptive,  152,  154;  how 
destroyed,  153;  in  milk,  154; 
how  spread,  151,  152;  typhoid, 
how  to  destroy,  145;  how  to 
protect  ourselves  from,  147; 
how  spread,  144 

Germs,  diseases  caused  by,  141, 
142,  167;  cause  of  running  ears, 
123;  of  intestinal  diseases,  148; 
keeping  out  of  foods,  24;  of  respi- 
ratory diseases,  protecting  from, 
1 60;  preventing  spread  of,  168- 
175;  of  malaria,  carried  by  mos- 
quitoes, 163 

Grip,  159-160;  how  to  prevent 
spread  of,  160 

HABITS,  and  health,  99;  import- 
ance of,  98-102;  lasting,  formed 
in  youth,  101;  seven  hygienic, 
99;  mental,  100 

Hair,  care  of  the,  73;  growth  of,  73 

Health,  importance  of,  2;  great 
laws  of,  7;  good,  a  protection 
against  germ  diseases,  161 

Hearing,  testing  the,  126 

Heart,  63;  work  of  the,  64;  effect 
of  alcohol  on,  66;  of  tobacco  on, 
no 


INDEX 


Heating  foods,  ir 

Houses,  effect  on  the  health,  177- 

178 
Hygiene,  defined,  3 

ILLNESS,    ascertaining   amount   of 

preventable,  3 
Indigestion,  causes  of,  32-37 
Inflammation,  due  to  germs,  165 
Influenza  ("flu")i  159 
Intestine,     absorption     from     the 

small,   29,  30;  digestion  in  the 

small,  29;  function  of  the  large, 

30 

JIMSON  weed,  antidote  for  poison- 
ing by,  130 

KIDNEYS,  69-70;  function  of,  69; 
keeping  in  health,  70 

LAUDANUM,  antidote  for  poisoning 

by,  130 

Light,  for  reading,  117,  118 
Liquid  at  meals,  33 
Lockjaw,  antitoxin  for,   167;  how 

caused,  166 

Lunches,  indigestible,  35 
Lungs,  care  of,  52-58;  diseases  of, 

150-162;   effects  of  alcohol  on, 

57;   of   tobacco   smoke   on,   56; 

functions  of,  53;  harmfulness  of 

crowding,  55 

MALARIA,  how  caused,  163;  how 
spread,  163,  172 

Measles,  164;  quarantine  in,  165 

Meningitis,  cause  of,  123 

Mercuric  chlorid,  antidote  for,  129 

Milk,  care  of,  23,  24;  carries  germs 

.  of  intestinal  diseases,  148;  of  tu- 
berculosis, 152;  of  typhoid,  145 

Mosquito,  carrier  of  malaria,  163; 
how  to  get  rid  of,  171 


Mumps,  care  of,  165 
Muscles,  that  hold  body  erect,  82; 
work  of,  83 

NAILS,  care  of  the,  74 

Nearsightedness,  115 

Nerves,  work  of,  90 

Nervous    system,    90-93;    care    of 

the,  94-97 
Nightshade,  antidote  for  poisoning 

by,  130 

OPIUM,  antidote  for  poisoning  by,  130 
Organs  of  body,  the  principal,  6 
Outdoor  sleeping,  50 
Overeating,  consequences  of,  34 
Over-exercising,  dangers  of,  65,  88 
Oxygen,  need  of  body  for,  46 

PALN,  bad  effects  of  suffering,  96 

Pasteur  treatment  for  rabies,  167 

Pink  eye,  118 

Pneumonia,  157 

Poisons,  antidotes  for,  129 

Preventing  spread  of  disease  germs, 

168-175 
Prohibition,  103 

QUARANTINE,  necessary  in  diph- 
theria, 158;  in  measles,  165 

RABIES,  cause  of,  167;  treatment 
of,  167 

Resistance  of  body  to  disease 
germs,  176-179;  increasing,  177 

Respiration,  artificial,  128 

Rest,  necessity  for,  94;  hi  tuber- 
culosis, 155 

SALIVARY  glands,  work  of,  27,  28 

Scarlet  fever,  164 

Selecting    foods,    15-18;    mistakes 

in,  15,  18 

Sitting  positions,  good  and  bad,  85 
Skeleton,  function  of  the,  Si 


1 84 


INDEX 


Skin,  71-  76 ;  as  a  regulator  of  body 
heat,  72  ;  structure  of  the,  71 

Sleep, -necessity  for,  95 

Sleeping,  outdoor,  50 

Smallpox,  164 ;  vaccination  against, 
164 

Sound,  how  heard,  122;  how  pro- 
duced, 122 

Spinal  column,  function  of,  82 

Spinal  cord,  90 

Spitting,  dangers  of,  153,  174 

Springs,  how  polluted,  172-173; 
keeping  germs  out  of,  172 

Sputum,  dangerous  in  pneumonia, 
157;  in  tuberculosis,  152 

Starchy  foods,  1 1 

Stomach,  digestion  in,  28 

Sugar  as  food,  ir 

TEETH,  care  of  the,  38-45 ;  care  of 
the  first  set,  43;  causes  of  de- 
cay in,  41 ;  decayed,  cause  of 
germ  diseases,  39,  40;  of  ill 
health,  39;  spread  of  decay  in, 
41 ;  straightening  irregular,  44 

Tetanus,  166 

Tobacco,  effect  on  the  body,  110- 
m;  on  digestive  organs,  no; 
on  the  heart,  no;  on  the  nerv- 
ous system,  in  ;  on  scholarship, 
in  ;  a  nuisance,  in 

Tobacco  smoke,  effects  on  the 
lungs,  56 

Tonsils,  enlarged,  effects  of,  60-62 ; 
frequency  of,  61 ;  importance  of 
treating,  61 

Tuberculosis,  150-156;  cause  of, 
151 ;  a  curable  disease,  155-156; 
expense  of,  151;  germ  of,  151; 
greatest  cause  of  poverty,  151; 


importance  of  early  treatment 
of,  156 ;  number  of  deaths  caused 
by,  150;  spread  by  consump- 
tives, 152;  by  milk,  152;  germ, 
destruction  of,  153;  spread  in 
milk,  154;  by  spitting,  153;  in 
other  ways,  152 

Typhoid  fever,  144-149;  caused 
by  germs  from  other  cases,  145 ; 
number  of  cases  yearly  in  United 
States,  144;  a  preventable  dis- 
ease, 144 

Typhoid  germ,  carriers  of,  146; 
destruction  of,  145  ;  flies,  as  car- 
riers of,  145  ;  life  of,  outside  the 
body,  144;  protecting  ourselves 
from,  147;  scattering  of,  144; 
how  to  prevent,  145 

VACCINATION,    and    resistance    to 

germ  diseases,  179 
Ventilation,   methods   of,   48,    51; 

necessity   for,    47 ;     in    sleeping 

rooms,  49 
Ventilators,  as  reducers  of  disease 

176 

Vision,  tests  of,  120 
Vitamins,  13,  1 8 

WAR,  the'Great,  32,  58,  107 
Wastes  from  body,  how  to  dispose 

of  safely,  1 74 
Water,  impure,  a  germ  carrier,  172 ; 

keeping  pure,  172 
Well,  how  to  keep  germs  out  of, 

172;  how  polluted,  173-174 
Whooping  cough,  158-159 

YELLOW  fever,  spread  by  mos- 
quitoes, 172 


If,... 


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SCHOOL  GARDEN  SERIES 
Edited  by  JOHN  W.  RITCHIE 

THE  CHILD'S  FOOD  GARDEN 

WITH  A  FEW  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FLOWER  CULTURE 

By  VAN  EVRIE  KILPATRICK 

Former  President,  School  Garden  Association  of  America 

THIS  is  a  real  beginner's  book,  far  more  simple 
than  any  other  garden  book  that  has  been 
published.  It  explains  the  very  first  steps  in  garden- 
ing and  the  different  problems  are  treated  as  they 
will  arise.  The  clear  and  exact  directions  make  it 
possible  for  the  child  to  succeed  in  his  first  garden 
attempt.  The  various  steps  are  illustrated  with 
photographs  of  children  carrying  out  the  actual 
operations.  Work  is  planned  for  each  month  in 
the  year,  from  seed  testing  in  January  to  mulching 
in  November  and  taking  stock  in  December. 

It  is  the  child  and  his  problems,  not  the  subject 
of  horticulture  that  the  author  continually  holds  in 
mind.  His  book  is  intended  for  any  pupil  who  can 
read.  It  may  be  used  as  low  as  the  third  grade  by 
the  pupil  who  has  a  garden  plot  assigned  to  him  at 
school  or  at  home ;  and  it  may  be  profitably  followed 
by  high-school  students  or  even  by  adults  who  are 
making  gardens  for  the  first  time. 

A  book  to  help  the  child  do  his  part  in  the  food 
campaign 


WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,   NEW  YORK 

2126  PRAIRIE  AVENUE,  CHICAGO 


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iimrnnifmnmiiimiimmiiimmniimii;- 


INSECT  ADVENTURES 

By  J.  HENRI  FABRE 

=        Selected  and  Arranged  for  Young  People  by  Louis  Seymour  Hasbrouck 


ANEW  supplementary  reader  in  nature  study  for  the 
intermediate  grades.  A  book  containing  a  vast 
amount  of  information  relating  to  insect  life — the  life 
story  of  the  spider,  the  fly,  the  bee,  the  wasp,  and  other 
insects — told  by  one  who  was  at  once  a  lover  of  nature,  a 
great  scientist,  and  a  most  entertaining  writer.  Maeter- 
linck calls  Fabre  the  "insects'  Homer,"  and  declares  that 
his  work  is  as  much  a  classic  as  the  famous  Greek  epic, 
and  deserves  to  be  known  and  studied  as  a  classic. 

This  is  the  first  time  that  Fabre's  writings  have  been 
made  available  for  school  use,  and  the  book  will  prove 
a  delight  to  school  children  wherever  they  are  given  the 
chance  to  read  it.  No  live  boy  or  girl  could  fail  to  be 
interested  in  nature  subjects  presented  by  so  gifted  a 
naturalist  as  Fabre  in  the  form  of  such  absorbing  ad- 
ventures. 

The  many  quaint  sketches  with  which  the  book  has  been 
illustrated  by  Elias  Goldberg  complete  its  charm. 

A  useful  index  is  included. 

Cloth.     300  pages. 

WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,  NEW  YORK 
2126   PRAIRIE   AVENUE,    CHICAGO 


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LIBRARY, 

' 


l.D   60044 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


